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Executive Summaries

1997 Austria Meeting Summary

INTERNATIONAL POLICE COOPERATION: A WORLD PERSPECTIVE

Dilip K. Das State University of New York, Plattsburgh, New York, USA and Peter C. Kratcoski
Department of Criminal Justice Studies, Kent State University Kent, Ohio, USA

Abstract

This paper focuses on the main discussion points of the 4th International Police Executive Symposium in Vienna, 1997. The symposium’s theme was international police cooperation and particular attention was paid to current co-operation projects, plans for the future and the lessons that can be drawn from their experiences. The results of a questionnaire covering the issues raised by the symposium are examined in light of the discussions which ensued in Vienna. It was found that the subject of international police co-operation has strong support and that the views expressed by the participants are very widely held. The results of the questionnaire, although reflecting the views of the symposium, suggested that there are a significant number of people who have little or no knowledge of international police co-operation.

INTRODUCTION*

The Fourth International Police Executive Symposium was held in Vienna, Austria, from May 20 through May 23, l997. The theme of the symposium was “International Police Cooperation: A World Perspective.” The symposium was sponsored by Dr. Peter Stiedl, Police President in Vienna, Federal Police of Austria The Local Organizer and Symposium Host was Hofrat Mag. Maximilian Edelbacher, Chief of the Major Crime Bureau, Federal Police of Austria, Vienna. The Symposium Organizer and Chair of the sessions was Dr. Dilip Das, Ph.D., Professor, Law Enforcement and Justice Administration, Western Illinois University. Representatives from more than thirty counties, from the continents of Africa, Asia, Europe, North American, South America, and Australia, participated in the symposium sessions. International agencies represented included the Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Division of the United Nations, INTERPOL, and EUROPOL.

The symposium presentations and discussions centered around international police cooperation in the following areas:

- The forms of regional, bilateral and multinational police cooperation projects
that currently existed in their countries or regions,

- The advantages, challenges, and problems of these cooperative activities,
including information on what has worked well,

- Plans for future projects in the field of international police cooperation,
and,

- The lessons that can be drawn for strengthening international police
cooperation in the future.

THE NATURE OF INTERNATIONAL POLICE COOPERATION

The symposium participants described the types of international police interaction that took place on the three levels of police cooperation delineated by Benyon (1997, p.107):

The macro-level is that which entails constitutional and international legal agreements, and the harmonization of national laws and regulations. The meso-level is concerned with the operational structures, practices and procedures of the police and other law enforcement agencies. The micro-level involves the investigation of specific offenses and the prevention and control of particular forms of crime.

The agreements mentioned by the various symposium participants were formulated at these interrelated levels of police cooperation. Global agreements, formulated at the macro-level, frequently involved legislation or policy formulation that established standards that must be met by the cooperating countries. These might set conditions for extradition of persons charged with specific types of offenses or for information exchanges. Multi-lateral agreements (reciprocal cooperation, services and exchange of information among several countries) and bilateral agreements (formal or informal agreements for the same types of interactions between two countries) were formulated at both the meso- and micro- levels. The multilateral agreements were often developed between countries that shared common borders or were part of a geographic region, and the cooperative structures established by these agreements focused on police operations or addressed a specific crime problem, such as drug trafficking or smuggling. Bilateral agreements involved reciprocal cooperation, services, and exchanges of information between two countries.

The representatives of every country that participated in the symposium noted that there was a definite need for bilateral, regional, and multinational police cooperation. Each participant stated that the country he or she represented had established such agreements. It was mentioned by several countries’ speakers (Spain, Portugal, and Austria) that they had developed numerous informal agreements that generally involved bordering countries, and many other countries’ representatives implied that they had similar informal agreements. The number of agreements has proliferated because of the growth in the crime problems these countries have experienced. The crimes have become more complex, and many crimes have international implications.

The nature of the crime problems the various countries faced strongly influenced the need for agreements. Illegal immigration, drug trafficking, money laundering, and organized crime were cited as problems that required regional or multi-national cooperation. Other crimes mentioned were child prostitution, sale of human organs for transplants, and sale of children. Another factor that determined the nature and extent of cooperative ventures was the countries’ territorial boundaries. Those countries in close geographic proximity to many other countries tended to have numerous bilateral and regional cooperative contacts. For example, the presenter from Singapore reported that organized and syndicated criminal activities that were occurring there were operated from beyond the border, creating a need for greater regional and international cooperation in combating these transnational crimes ( Teck, l997).

Numerous examples, documented by statistics, were used by the speakers to illustrate how the nature of crime in their countries had changed. For example, Norway has experienced drastic increases in the seizure of heroin, with the increase in the amount of heroin confiscated nearly doubling when comparing l995 with l994, and 70% of those convicted of serious drug felonies in l995 were foreign nationals. Police believed that most of them were linked to organized criminal groups (Gammelgard, l997). Japan has experienced a great increase in the number of foreigners entering that country, more than 3 million every year, as well as a large increase in the number of Japanese going abroad. This mobility, along with rapid development of the transportation and communication systems in Japan, has led to increases in various types of transnational and international crimes of all sorts, particularly the smuggling of drugs and guns (Ohara, l997). The number of foreign national entrants and foreign nationals arrested in Japan for violating the penal code more than doubled between l989 and l995 (Ohara, quoted from National Police Agency, l996 White Paper on Police, p. 298). (See also Scalia, l996; Yoshikawa, l995; Chu, l994; King, l994).

The presenter from India reported that his country’s drug problem has increased because of its location (Reddy, 1992, quoted by Raghavan, 1997, p. 6): Sandwiched between the Golden Triangle of Laos, Thailand and Burma and the Golden Crescent of Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan, both of which grow enormous quantities of poppy, India is highly vulnerable to the influence of drugs. Apart from acting as a transit point, it has become a major drug-producing and consuming nation.

The Turkish presenter stated that the country did not have an internal drug abuse problem until recent years. Ironically, the increases in drug abuse may have resulted from the strong control of the Turkish borders by the police, which resulted in drugs moving into the domestic market for a cheaper price and greatly increased drug consumption in Turkey itself (Cakici, l997). In the 20 years between l975 and l995, the number of statistically registered criminal acts in Austria doubled. The Austrian representative reported that new forms of criminality, including the fraudulent manipulation of trade and tax laws, computers, cheques, and credit cards, have become widespread and that drug trafficking, burglary and trade in human beings offenses are highly dominated by foreign suspects (Edelbacher, l997).

TYPES OF AGREEMENTS

The social and cultural traditions of the countries partially determined the types of agreements formulated. Countries having similar languages, legal traditions, cultures and similar crime problems tended to develop many agreements. The wealth of a country and its political climate and structure were also mentioned as influencing agreements. If high level political and police officials were supportive, agreements were more likely to be instituted.

BILATERAL AGREEMENTS. In international police cooperation, the matters of mutuality and reciprocity are very important considerations influencing the forms of police agreements. Generally, agreements, both formal and informal, have been established because all parties to the agreements have something to gain, since they share a mutual problem. In reference to bilateral agreements, it was noted by the speaker from Kenya that countries who develop such agreements usually have strong historical, ideological, social and economic ties, share common crime problems, and need a united front to combat these problems (Sang, l997). The purpose of specific agreements would tend to determine their scope, structure. duration, and extent. Informal agreements were developed to focus in on specific problems. As such, these are operational agreements, and in some cases may exist for many years, while in other instances agreements may last until a specific problem is solved.

The most common types of agreements mentioned by all of the representatives were bilateral. Many of these agreements have been in existence for a considerable period of time, and are grounded in commonalities of traditions, customs, and territory, while others are of fairly recent origin, developed after the countries went through some types of changes in government or political structure. Countries involved in bilateral agreements may or may not have common social, economic, or historical linkages, but they have interdependency resulting from their geographic proximity or their common crime problems.

MULTINATIONAL AGREEMENTS. Multinational agreements, treaties, or memoranda of understanding may be of a global nature, as exemplified by nations participating in INTERPOL or the United Nations, or they may be regional in nature, as exemplified by EUROPOL, the Schengen agreement or the East African Regional Chiefs of Police. The various regional and global police agreements all have similar missions, but they are structured differently and have varying amounts of resources, equipment, personnel, and political power. For example, the East African Regional Chiefs of Police Association, consisting of Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania, holds conferences regularly and the countries cooperate on a wide range of general police matters. The Schengen agreement led to the removal of border controls on the citizens of the participating countries of Germany, France, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg. The police representatives of the various countries also cooperate on crime prevention and control matters. The European Union Treaty eventually led to the establishment of EUROPOL. The Irish representative noted that the Treaty of European Union facilitated the extension of police cooperation into the areas of justice and home affairs, and enhanced cooperation between governments in tackling the misuse of drugs, mainly in the judicial, customs and police areas. This led to the establishment of the European Police Office (EUROPOL) in l992 and the subsequent European Drugs Unit (EDU) in l994 (Murray, l997). The EUROPOL Drugs Unit (EDU) was created specifically for the exchange and analysis of information and intelligence pertaining to illicit drug trafficking, crimes involving illegal immigration networks, illicit trafficking in radioactive and nuclear substances, illicit stolen vehicles, and trafficking in human beings (Rauchs, l997). (See also Robertson, l994.)

The Nordic Council grew out of long-standing, traditional, informal agreements between Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, and Norway. These countries, sharing a common geographic area and having similar laws and regulations, began their cooperative ventures by establishing mutual passport agreements and proceeded to the establishment of mutually beneficial arrangements in a number of other areas, including the execution of sentences, and prosecution of crimes. Gradually, their cooperation extended to such matters as criminal investigations and enforcement. Other Nordic regional cooperation units are the Nordic Police and Customs Cooperation, the Nordic Traffic Cooperation, and the Baltic Sea Cooperation (Gammelgard, l997). The TREVI Group was established in l976 by a number of European nations as a means to combat the threat of international terrorism, radical extremism, and violence. Its function was to implement policy established by the Member States of the European Union (El Zein, l997). The delegate from France stated that the police unit called International Police Technical Service is focused on developing partnerships with Latin American, African, and Eastern, Central, and Western European countries. Currently, the service has relations with approximately 60 countries. The major objectives of the service are to provide training, exchange information, and help coordinate various crime control activities relating to terrorism, airport security, drug trafficking, and organized crime (Bourdin-Coulbois, l997). The Middle European Police Academy (MEPA) was created to provide specific training for selected officers. Those involved in the program spend three months training in neighboring countries. the training is specifically focused on learning the laws, customs, and cultures of the countries involved (Edelbacher, l997).

Some regional cooperative agreements, such as the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) , are designed to focus in on a specific crime problem. The SAARC agreement is oriented toward the prevention and elimination of drug trafficking and terrorism from the member countries of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka (Rajaguru, l997). The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) includes seven countries. This organization was created to provide training programs, share intelligence, reduce credit card fraud and, in general, to improve communications and cooperation among the participating nations (Teck, l997).

In North America, since only three countries are involved, the police cooperative agreements have remained predominantly bilateral. While numerous agreements have been developed between the United States and Mexico, the most important concern is their partnership in the war against drugs. These cooperative ventures have not always been totally successful. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) may eventually lead to a number of new regional law enforcement agreements for the participating countries. Some of the major problems or concerns of each nation (drugs and immigration on the part of the U.S., and illegal smuggling of guns on on the part of Mexico) may be addressed. (Marenin, l997). Instead of being regional, Canadian agreements are predominantly of a bilateral nature or part of global agreements. Canada has entered into Mutual Legal Assistance treaties with various countries, including the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, France, and the Ukraine. These agreements have enabled police to collect evidence against international criminals and apprehend international fugitives from justice (Mulvihill, l997). In the United States, international police activities are completed by a number of policing agencies. It was noted by the U.S. delegate that the international criminal justice unit in the U.S. Department of State is responsible for coordinating international law enforcement affairs. The U.S. is an active member of many organizations dealing with crime control, including the United Nations Drug Control Program(UNDC), the International Organization for Migration, the Organization of American States, the Inter-American Drug Abuse Control Commission (CICAD), the Financial Action Task Force established in l989 to combat international money laundering, the Caribbean Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering, and the European Committee to Combat Drugs (CELAD). The U.S. also makes financial contributions to a number of U.N. and regional programs (Marenin, l997).

It was noted by the Argentinian presenter that four member states in South America have established a commercial system similar to the European Union. Although this makes it easier for criminals to cross country borders to carry on their activities, South American countries, through liaison officers, have developed a permanent interchange of information and constant contact between police officers, with the goal of curtailing the activities of international criminals. In l996, 350 Argentinean officers were sent abroad to train and study, for the purpose of acquainting them with different perspectives on crime problems and the criminal element (Hiredia, l997).

Several regional associations or organizations have been formed throughout the Continent of Africa. The Association for Chiefs of Police of the West African Region, the Committee on Chiefs of Police for West and Central Africa, and the South African Regional Police Chiefs Cooperation Organization (SARPCCO) and the Economic Organization of West African States (ECOWAS) were all formed for purposes of establishing agreements, holding conferences on international police issues, to exchange information, and to determine strategies that could lead to the prevention and control of international crimes. Perhaps the most powerful of these organization is SARPCCO. Agreements established by the member nations allow the police from one country to cross the border of another member country to make an arrest of a fugitive. This arrest can be completed without a request and clearance from the head of the State government in which the arrest occurs (Ebbe, l997).

Some of the delegates indicated that their nations did not participate in regional organizations, other than those specifically developed through the efforts of INTERPOL. The membership of INTERPOL has grown tremendously in recent years (Bressler, l992; Fooner, l989; Anderson, l989). There were 50 member nations in l955, compared to l76 in l996 ( Higdon, l997). The move to regionalize INTERPOL began in the early l970s. At that time, four regions were established (Africa, The Americas, Asia, and Europe), and conferences were held biannually in these regions. Through the INTERPOL Regional Bureaux, working groups were established for each region for the purpose of studying how best to set up bureaus and which needs of that region should be their focus. The European region was established in l986, and a subregional bureau for South America, located in Argentina, was established in l992. A South Regional Bureau of INTERPOL, which would include twelve former Soviet nations, is in a developmental stage. In Africa, plans are well advanced for the establishment of three Sub-Regional Bureaux. Asia established a working group for cooperation in l985, which focuses on developing telecommuncations networks and training (Higdon, l997).

MULTI LATERAL- GLOBAL AGREEMENTS. All of the nations represented at the Symposium were members of INTERPOL. In l997, the organization had l77 member countries throughout the world, with the General Secretariat housed in Lyons, France (El Zein, l997). INTERPOL has three major parts: The General Assembly, the General Secretariat, and the Executive Committee. Each member country has a National Central Bureau (NCB). These NCBs are the focal point for the exchange of information requested by the member countries. The NCBs are housed in and staffed by the member countries, and they must operate within the limits of the laws of the countries in which they are located.

The INTERPOL General Secretariat, as a permanent body of the organization, is responsible for centralizing police information and for handling international criminal cases. This Division is also responsible for processing information intended for the NCBs. It has all the necessary means to be able to respond immediately to NCBs requesting police information. It manages the computerized processing of police information and the electronic archive system, ensures that the internal deletion rules are applied to files, drafts international notices and summaries of criminal cases, and organizes meetings and symposia on cases or special topics. (El Zein, l997). In order to accomplish the tasks mentioned above, INTERPOL is structured into several sections, units, and branches. INTERPOL also serves as a medium to establish policy for international police cooperation. The Interpol Regional Bureaux was established to assure that the issues, concerns, and needs of member countries throughout the world would be addressed. INTERPOL is currently working very closely with various member countries to provide technological assistance, modernizing and upgrading electronic equipment, and providing training in the use of equipment. It is trying to meet the needs of each member country and then provide the types of specific training that will be useful for that region of the world. The services provided by INTERPOL are particularly important to those member countries, for example, some African, Asian and South American nations, that are experiencing rapid increases in crime, especially drug trafficking, counterfeiting of currency and documents, and organized criminal activity, and which do not have the resources, technological equipment or personnel to combat these criminal activities (Klobodu, l997)

EUROPOL (European Police Office) grew out of the member states’ of the European Union’s decision in l99l to establish policies pertaining to the field of justice for its member nations. Several international cooperative efforts relating to crime and justice had been established (the Trevi Group and European Drugs Unit, for example), by various European countries, and EUROPOL is a natural extension of these efforts. The underlying goal of EUROPOL is to improve on and increase the effectiveness of police cooperation among the member states of the European Union. The Central Office, located in The Hague, has l5 European states as members ( Rauchs, l997). In addition to the goals of combating and preventing drug trafficking and terrorism, EUROPOL is committed to exchanging information with and supporting the police efforts of members states in the areas of establishing data bases, investigations, analysis of crime data, training of officers, research, crime prevention strategies, and forensic matters. Currently, the provisional EUROPOL services are limited to EUROPOL members. Cooperation with Non-European Union countries is being considered, and plans for how best to enhance the services are being developed. This is also true for negotiating and signing formal agreements or memoranda of understanding with such international organizations as INTERPOL and the World Court Organization (WCO).

The United Nations is associated with international police cooperation in several different ways. Specifically, the United Nations has used civilian police components for United Nations peace keeping operations. Various countries represented at the symposium had participated in these peacekeeping missions. The Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Branch of the United Nations has the goal of responding to United Nations General Assembly resolutions that are related to the control or prevention of various kinds of crimes. The most recent division of this branch is the Organized Crime Division. Its work is to respect the adoption of the United Nations Resolution on Combating Organized Crime, and its projects focus on such matters as money laundering, trafficking in stolen children, violence against women, assisting in the establishment of forensic laboratories, anti-terrorism and violence reduction, and smuggling. The United Nations also works very closely with the World Court on such matters as developing model treaties for extradition, and it assists countries in various support activities. (Pasotti and Kline, l997).

While some countries represented at the symposium were specifically involved with the United Nations through its peace keeping efforts, for the majority, particularly some the newly independent democracies, their major interaction with the United Nations tended to be through crime prevention activities. These would be related to activities that were considered a direct threat to their security, such as terrorism and organized crime. For example, it was mentioned that Egypt’s strategy is to obtain information, scientific experience, and training and research, and to establish cooperative agreements with as many countries as needed to combat the serious threats of crime in that country. In this regard, the United Nations is a valuable resource (Hamod, l997).

THE ADVANTAGES, CHALLENGES, AND PROBLEMS OF ENGAGING IN COOPERATIVE POLICE ACTIVITIES, INCLUDING INFORMATION ON WHAT WORKED WELL

ADVANTAGES. The rewards a country receives by engaging in international cooperative police agreements generally relate back to the reasons why the agreements were originally established. The country representatives mentioned such factors as having the opportunity to share important intelligence and other information on criminals and criminal activity, new training opportunities for their officers, developing trust among the countries, officers forming strong relationships with each other, informal interaction between officers participating in the agreements and learning new crime control methods. Most of the representatives stated that international cooperative police agreements increased the likelihood that their country would be successful in fighting organized crime, terrorism, and drug trafficking. In fact, it was implied that the police of a single country do not have much chance to be successful in controlling international criminal activity unless that nation receives cooperation and assistance from other nations (See Kryuchkov, l989; Bossard, l987.)

The use of drug liaison officers, who worked with police and customs agents of the the fourteen nations of the Nordic Pact, was mentioned by the delegate from Norway as being very successful (Gammelgard, l997). The presenter from Portugal also referred to the benefits of having liaison officers with other countries. The speaker from the Russian Federation also mentioned that the use of liaison officers was a very useful means to establish international cooperation (Gladkin and Schdanov, l997). The Middle Europe Police Academy, which offers training on the investigation of organized crime to member nations, was mentioned by the representative of Slovenia as being very useful (Maver, l997). A number of representatives specifically mentioned the bilateral or unilateral exchange of officers for training and instruction in cross-cultural diversity as being a very advantageous international cooperative agreement. The African nations have extensive land based borders and it is very difficult to protect these borders. However, international police agreements relating to border patrols, which are mutually beneficial, were viewed as helpful in dealing with the border patrol problem (Ebbe, l997). It was noted that East African cooperative agreements have led to the use of a common passport, making it easier for officials to detect fraudulent documents ( Sang, l997).

The delegate from Uganda mentioned that the technical communications of that country were vastly improved after the country received assistance from INTERPOL. Also, the standardization of equipment and laws on the cultivation of drugs made it more difficult for criminals to operate (Kisembo, l997). The presenter from China mentioned the importance of the financial support received by that country from INTERPOL (Shaowen, l997).

Most of the representatives believed that the information exchanges and training programs were effective, and the services provided by INTERPOL, EUROPOL, and the United Nations had some positive effects on the reduction and control of crime in their countries. It appears that bilateral and regional agreements have the greatest opportunity to make a difference in controlling international crime, because the agreements tend to be on the ground level of operations. For example, the South African Regional Police Chiefs Cooperative Organization has given members powers to make arrests in cooperating countries without going to the governments of the states. The Middle European Policing Academy, representing eight countries, provides ground level, on the job police training, with those being trained spending time in the cooperating host countries. Assistance given to the United Nations in peace keeping activities was mentioned several times as being an example of what works.

By-products of the agreements, such as promoting trade, better understanding of each other’s cultures, developing friendships, and even promoting tourism, were some unexpected beneficial outcomes. The initial success of a bilateral or regional agreement could lead to the development of new agreements or new structures within an existing organization. These developments might not even have been considered as being feasible prior to the agreement. For example, a long range goals of EUROPOL is to establish a European Federation of Police, an organization that might not have been envisioned before the creation of the European Union (Alvarez, l997).

In summary, all of the participants claimed that involvement in international cooperative agreements had benefited their countries in various ways. Obviously, not all countries were equally rewarded. Some countries, such as the United States and Canada, may appear to contribute more than they receive in terms of funds and resources invested in the agreements. However, the fact that citizens can travel throughout the world feeling more secure and the higher level of international cooperation and increased professionalism of the police are generalized benefits that a country receives that go beyond the original expected benefits to be derived from the agreements (Koenig, l997).

Although a number of examples of what forms of cooperative activity tend to have positive effects or work were given, the bottom line is that research to determine what effects these cooperative agreements truly have in preventing and controlling crime has not yet been completed. The United Nations has done some work in assessment and research, but much more is needed (Marenin, l997). (See also Deflem, l997 and Marenin, l986). With the proliferation of bilateral and multinational agreements, the question of the value of these agreements presents itself. Chatterton (l997)noted that much of the research on international police cooperation has focused on the structure of the organizations created, and not on the process. Often, cooperative ventures are created and a structure is developed in response to perceived problems. A great deal of information is collected on the structure of the police forces involved in the cooperative venture, including the number of officers, the working groups, legislation that led to the agreement, and the resources devoted to it. While all of this is useful, he notes that the research “rarely extends to a consideration of how police cooperation operates in practice.” (Chatterton, l997, 4) In international police cooperative ventures, he notes that the cooperating police agencies from the various countries may not always have the same goals. For police cooperation, goals that may be related to a certain operation, such as investigating a specific criminal, are of much less significance than goals that would affect the entire police unit, such as preventing cross border crimes. However, these goals may be of less importance to the society than some police agency goals, such as developing strategies for drug control, and even these goals are of less importance than those that are of societal interest, such as the general control of crime. In summary, the goals of some international cooperative projects may be limited to the lowest level of single operations, such as investigation. This type of organization may be quite useful to a country that is in dire need of such service, but of little importance to a country that has developed its own mechanisms and resources for completing such investigations. Any discussion of international police organizations in terms of their problems or limitations must take into account such factors as what the international cooperative venture hoped to accomplish, whether the actual functioning of the international venture helped accomplish the goal, and whether it is possible to accomplish the intended purpose with the type of organization developed (Chatterton, l997).

CHALLENGES AND PROBLEMS OF POLICE COOPERATIVE VENTURES.

The responses to the question of challenges or problems covered a wide area. Countries with large, extensive borders often do not have the manpower or equipment to adequately provide the type of control expected in the agreements. Several of the representatives from African countries noted this as being a problem. Kenya, for example, a country that established free movement across borders with other African countries, has found that, while this may stimulate trade and help develop communications among the countries, it makes it more difficult to control the movement of fugitives and international criminals (Sang, l997). (See also Cottam and Marenin, l98l.) The same problems were mentioned in regard to India. It was stated that smuggling takes place in large dimensions, and criminals can cross borders without fear, because international policing is not available. Those involved with drugs and money laundering are able to operate easily. (Bhattacharyya, l997). As a result of its specific geographic location, Jordan is a transit country for drug trafficking. It is not a receiving country, but a connecting country, with drugs flowing through from north, south, and east. Jordan cooperates in international policing to the extent possible by intercepting drugs from other countries, and it has cooperated with France, Germany, the United States, Arabic countries, and European countries. Nevertheless, it is very difficult to maintain the borders and stem the flow (Nsour, l997).

Language barriers and lack of knowledge of other countries’ customs and cultures were cited as major factors that inhibited the effectiveness of some of the treaties or agreements. (See Ingleton, l994; Anderson, l99l.) For example, the Australian delegate, Leong (l997), commented on the fact that the Australian Federal Police are not trained in cross cultural diversity. He noted that most police are of Anglo origins, and they do not have appropriate knowledge and understanding of the Polynesian and Asian customs and cultures. Much of the training given in this area is not contextual enough to be useful to police officers in the field. Many of the African countries have a number of different languages and ethnic groups within a single country, which makes it extremely difficult to police internally as well as internationally (Ebbe, l997). The problems created through language barriers and lack of understanding of the cultures of other countries were also cited by representatives from Kenya, Uganda, India, Canada, and the United States. The varieties of languages spoken within a country, and the lack of understanding and mutual distrust of the people of other countries lead to the agreements being less effective. For example, the representative from Ireland stated that more agreements could be developed between Ireland and Great Britain, if there were greater understanding and acceptance of their cultural differences (Murray, l997). It was mentioned that the U.S. approaches relations with Mexico with the assumption that the Mexicans are corrupt, and the Mexicans have a general opinion of the U.S. police as being arrogant (Marenin, l997).

Police corruption and particularly the corruption of high level government officials were cited by several representatives as factors that created problems. (See McCormack, l996; Chebotarev, l989; Punch, l985; Benveniste, l983). While such corruption may exist throughout the world, specific attention was given to some of the African and Asian countries, where it was stated that even heads of state have been known to be corrupt. According to the Canadian representative, corruption is a major inhibitor of cooperative ventures. If a country is known for being corrupt, it is not likely that agreements will be seriously explored (Koenig, l997). At times, some agreements may be made by various countries at the diplomatic level, with knowledge on the part of both countries that it is a “paper” agreement, and there is little chance of the provisions of the agreement being operationalized. The reasons why the quality of the relationships is poor and that the agreements have very little substance are many. Other than factors already mentioned, a lack of resources was a major factor cited by several speakers. Many of the presenters, particularly those from newly independent or developing countries, noted that projects are not working because their countries lacked the personnel, equipment, and resources to implement the agreements at a level that would guarantee positive results. There is a need for more funding personnel and more and newer equipment. The lack of resources to provide the officers with the appropriate training is a great handicap (Teck, l997; Kumar, l997). (See also Igbinovia, l984; l982 )

It is not implied that all of the countries were experiencing the same problems or the same intensity of problems. It was noted earlier that several of the global organizations, such as the United Nations and INTERPOL, have contributed significantly in terms of funds and other types of resources, in helping the poorer nations to develop their law enforcement organizations and upgrade their information systems. A number of individual countries have also contributed funds, equipment and personnel. However, the general picture is one of a rather dramatic increase in the crime problems of the developing countries, without the same increase in the resources needed to curtail the criminal activity. Often, the international criminal element has more resources in terms of money and communications equipment, and is more sophisticated in its procedures and techniques than the police who are attempting to control their criminal activities. Lack of training was mentioned by many representatives as a major factor inhibiting police success. Specifically, the need is for training and skills that can be employed at the operational level.

It was acknowledged by several speakers that some of the difficulties or challenges of the international cooperative agreements are beyond the scope of the police to resolve. The matter of the corruption of high level officials has already been mentioned. Lack of cooperation, reluctance to allocate resources, and reluctance to participate in cooperative agreements are all challenges that must be faced. If a regional cooperative operation is established specifically to control smuggling, and one of the nations in that geographic region fails to cooperate or allows that country to be used as a “safe haven,” the effectiveness of the operation is greatly reduced. The representative of Japan mentioned that, with the help of organized crime, a number of illegal Chinese immigrants are quite successful in entering Japan and maintaining residence there (Ohara, l997). It was noted that some countries are reluctant to provide information on violent criminals, and some allow drug trafficking to be routed through their countries. Egypt would like to establish a plan to control crimes committed by tourists and members of organized crime, but it has not always found other countries willing to cooperate. There is a need for intelligence and general statistics on these types of crimes, so that they are able to develop a plan to combat them. Such a plan would have to take into consideration the other countries of that region (Fathi, l997). The breakup of the Communist bloc in Eastern Europe and the subsequent disruption that these countries experienced for several years after the changes in government led to a number of problems for neighboring countries. Although there have been attempts to form agreements and provide assistance, there still are considerable communication problems (Edelbacher, l997).

In a few instances, the disadvantages or challenges of international police cooperation agreements were limited to specific countries or regions. For example, it was stated that in parts of the African continent civil war or internal conflict is so pronounced that it is very difficult to develop effective external bilateral or regional international agreements (Ebbe, l997). In the U.S., there is no integrated federal police system, and the federal agencies that would be involved in international police organizations, such as the FBI, Secret Service, and the Drug Enforcement Administration, often do not even cooperate with each other internally. These agencies compete for resources and prestige. In addition, the resources available for funding international policing ventures tend to be chiefly limited to drug traffic control (Marenin, l997). (See also Nadelmann, l993; Lobe, l995.) In addition to the need to improve cooperation and participation of some countries in these informal agreements, it was mentioned by several representatives that there is a need to improve the legal framework through which the police cooperative activities are carried out (Vorniotakis, l997). The standardization of extradition treaties, laws pertaining to organized crime, drug trafficking, counterfeiting, illegal immigration, and the standardization of passports would lead to an overall improvement in the effectiveness of the agreements, and would help define what forms or types of agreements are needed. Presenters from several countries implied that there may be more bilateral and regional agreements than resources, facilities and time available to adequately implement them.

The quality of the services provided by INTERPOL is highly dependent on the amount of cooperation, assistance, and financial support received from the member nations. In short, INTERPOL cannot provide various types of services to the police departments of its member countries without first obtaining service from them. For example, each member country is required to pay a “statutory contribution” each year in return for the services received. If some nations fail to assume their fair share of the financial burden, the services provided by INTERPOL may be curtailed. However, more important is the quality of the relationship between the General Secretariat and the various law enforcement agencies that serve as the National Central Bureaux of INTERPOL. These officers and the stations in which they are housed are paid from the national budgets of the member nations, and the work they complete is essential to the mission of the organization. The starting point for quality services requires that the member nations have the modernized, high quality technical equipment needed to run their NCBs, and that the personnel of the General Secretariat be trained to the extent that they understand the needs of each country, so they can provide the types of specific training that will be useful for the various regions of the world (Higdon, l997). These are “the mutual dependencies of national and international police work.” (See Deflem, l996; Mawby, l990; Anderson, l989).

The relationship between the General Secretariat and the member nations is one of reciprocity. If the information requested by a nation is slow in coming, or is suspect in regard to its quality, it is because the member nation supplying the information has not provided the political cooperation needed to process the information in a timely manner. The regional approach adopted by INTERPOL, in which regional conferences are periodically held in Africa, the Americas, Asia, and Europe, along with the development of the Sub-Regional Bureaux and the Regional Modernization Programme, are methods that INTERPOL is using to try to improve the efficiency of its communications and operations. Again, the work within the regions predominantly falls on the shoulders of those officials from the regions, with the work of the General Secretariat being that of providing support in terms of technical equipment and training in the use of the equipment, cooperation, and helping to facilitate whatever programs or endeavors are instituted in the regions (Higdon, l997).

EUROPOL’s structure is similar to that of INTERPOL, and the officials of the member countries assigned to EUROPOL remain entirely under the authority of their representative state. While EUROPOL claims to have had very good results, it was recognized that it is still in an organizational phase, and the major concern is to assure that a good coordination of services is developed.

The United Nations serves the member nations in matters pertaining to crime, crime prevention, or peace keeping activities through its Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Branch. The number of requests for financial assistance far exceeds the available budget, and the U.N. must be very selective in deciding which projects will be supported. (Pasotti and Kline, l997).

PLANS FOR FUTURE PROJECTS IN THE FIELD OF INTERNATIONAL POLICE COOPERATION

Several symposium participants expressed the opinion that there must be considerable internal change in their countries before there can be any success in expanding efforts to develop international policing agreements. Some of these internal matters included educating the political officials on the need for international police cooperation, reducing political barriers in order to make international police agreements possible, eliminating the bureaucratic hurdles that inhibit effective international police cooperation, and getting rid of the corrupt politicians, who benefit if the efforts of international police cooperation are unsuccessful. One speaker (Raghavan, l997) believed that a few scandals within his country had caused considerable problems, and these sensitive areas with neighboring countries must be resolved. There is a need for a lot of discussion with these neighboring countries before new bilateral agreements should be undertaken.

Much of the discussion on the future pertained to strengthening the present efforts and improving on or eliminating the problem areas. The areas for improvement or expansion included developing the criminal data information systems by providing more information, adding new categories of information, eliminating the restrictions some countries have placed on sending sensitive information, and assuring that all countries have state of the art equipment. In this regard, for some countries it means intensifying efforts to obtain more technological and economic support to develop their communications and information systems, while in other countries and the global organizations, it is a matter of providing more technological and economic support to the underdeveloped countries.

The plan or need to improve and expand on training of police in international policing was stated as a high priority for many of the nations. The speaker from Turkey noted that there is a need for police organizations to learn more from each other, and he placed a high priority on international cooperation in police training (Cakici, l997). The delegate from Canada stated that his country will continue to play a strong role in training, along with continuing to send liaison officers to countries around the world (Koenig, l997), and it was mentioned that the United States will also participate in and support more training in international policing (Marenin, l997). For Japan, it was emphasized that the training will focus a great deal more on developing language skills and participating in officer exchange programs with Asian and Latin American countries (Ohara, l997).

The training program developed by the Netherlands includes both technical and relational aspects. More than 500 officers have been trained in various European countries. The training begins at the personal relationship level. It is organized around the principle of partnership development and co-management. The trainees and the trainers develop a personal relationship as a result of the experience (Wiarda, l997).

Schulte (l997), the participant from Germany, suggested that the future training of police officers should be based on a community policing model. The orientation should be toward understanding human rights and assuring that these right are guaranteed, with an emphasis on understanding of0 other countries’ cultures. Training in another language is a prerequisite. He proposed a European policing academy, in which the top senior officers and middle rank officers will be brought together for training. The education will be structured so that it will emphasize the feelings of “Europeanism” instead of nationalism. This academy would be integrated with the proposed unified police force of the European Union. It was predicted that such an academy will exist within five years. Representatives from several nations stated that their countries had plans for the reorganization or establishment of bilateral, regional, and global agreements, and a number of them mentioned that they are improving and expanding relations with INTERPOL and the United Nations. Innovations suggested included establishing European security areas and a supernational police force. (Mohler, l997).

Singapore will continue to expand the training it offers in terms of international policing and cultural diversity (Teck, l997). The speaker from Australia mentioned that his country would try to restore the cuts in funding for training the federal police had experienced, and it will continue to provide special training for senior officers through attendance at international seminars and exchange of officers (Leong, l997). Edelbacher (l997) of Austria emphasized the need to educate the young officers in matters of international policing and to extend the training and the cooperation with disciplines other than the police. Specifically, he mentioned that partnerships with scientific agencies, justice agencies, and customs must be strengthened. The need for learning foreign languages and using these in training was emphasized (Voniotakis, l997). The delegate from Portugal stated that globalness should be emphasized in training. He mentioned that sooner or later a federated European police force will have to be established, and all police training in European countries should have some focus on international policing. In this regard, there is a need to increase and expand language skills, and to extend the number of liaison officers the country offers (Torres, l997). Delegates from the Russian Federation mentioned that special seminars on policing in a democratic society will be held within the Russian Federation during l997 (Gladkin and Schdanov, l997). The delegate from Slovenia mentioned that the education and training of police in that country will include more involvement with international police organizations and with countries throughout Europe, as well as the FBI, the United Nations, and INTERPOL . They would like to have more liaison officers from other countries stationed in Slovenia. ( Marver, l997) Spain will improve on its training for liaison officers and expand the number of such officers sent to developing countries, particularly those in Africa (Alvarez, l997).

Other factors mentioned for future international police cooperation projects included work on standardization of definitions of different types of crime, and work on the standardization of methods of recording criminal data. INTERPOL is involved in this project, along with many of the member nations. Several countries are in the process of establishing new informal agreements or agreements that relate to the standardization of laws and policies that are considered to be of an international nature. The delegate from Singapore reported that his country will expand its extradition agreements to more countries, and will also recommended the establishment of global drug laws (Teck, l997). In Asia, the International Narcotic Control Board will be expanded. Eventually, there will be an emphasis on global drug laws. There may be a shift away from the emphasis on punishing drug abusers. More assistance will be given to those health agencies that work with drug abusers and provide rehabilitative services (Kumar, l997).

The strengthening of efforts in the problem area of illegal immigration was considered to be an important area for increased international police cooperation and new agreements (Edelbacher, l997; Vorniotakis, l997; Wiarda, l997). The standardization of the laws on illegal immigration is a matter that the international community should examine. A distinction between unrecorded and unauthorized entry into a country is a topic that should be considered (Ponce, l997). The delegate from Egypt stated that his country needed assistance from those countries that allow various categories of criminals, such as terrorists and drug traffickers, to escape to their countries without fearing apprehension. New control are needed that would give Egypt the ability to extradite these criminals. Egypt, through either informal or formal arrangements, will continue to provide assistance to other countries requesting help on matters relating to criminal investigations of an international nature, and other types of crimes that these countries are experiencing ( Fathi, l997).

Research on police international cooperative efforts is planned. The research needed should focus on whether bilateral and regional cooperative agreements would enhance or inhibit the accomplishments of the global organizations. The focus of this research should be on the cooperative policing process. There was a general consensus that there is a lack of knowledge on how a national government organization affects international policing cooperation. The writing and research of various human rights groups can alert police to the many non-government organizations that can provide a great range of assistance in matters of international community policing ( Koenig, l997; see also United Nations, l997). The research on the effectiveness of international police cooperation has to focus on the problems toward which the strategies are being addressed and should attempt to discover how much of the crime is cross-border crime, and what types of partnerships have the most likely potential for success in combating crime, which police management styles are proactive and which are reactive, how the concepts and problems are defined, and whether all of the police departments are addressing problems that has a universally accepted definition, what data collected in a particular region is important at the national level or global levels, and how this data can be transmitted (Chatterton, l997).

The future projects and roles of such global organizations as INTERPOL and the United Nations, and regional organization such as EUROPOL are difficult to predict, since their destinies are so highly dependent on the legislation or agreements coming from the countries of the world. The role of INTERPOL in international policing matters and the expansion of services can only be improved with the cooperation of the government officials of the member countries. There will be a continuation and expansion of the projects currently in existence for INTERPOL. The modernization program, specifically in regard to assisting with the development of equipment in those countries needing such systems, and the development of the SubRegional Bureaus will continue as resources allow. The same is true of the specialized training needed in some of the regions. INTERPOL will continue its cooperation with the World Court and continue to work on developing extradition agreements with those countries where they are needed. In general, a major focus will be placed on political cooperation from various
countries (El Zein, 1997; Higdon, l997).

For EUROPOL, the major thrust will continue to be working toward developing the organization, coordinating the services, using European liaison officers to provide analytical support to the police departments of member nations, continuing work in the prime target areas of drug trafficking, immigration, money laundering, trafficking in human beings, and organized crime analysis, and perhaps developing plans for the future, such as a European police force. EUROPOL will try to develop cooperation and reciprocity agreements between Europe and the other continents. Improvements in the coordination and structuring of all of the international agencies, as well as the United Nations and INTERPOL, will be a high priority for the future of EUROPOL. Coupled with this will be an emphasis on research, particularly on studies of the offense of trafficking in human beings (den Boer, l993). Specific training on the control of money laundering is planned, and attention will be given to providing and improving the guidelines for crime analysis. The Balkan Agreement on immigration will also be operationalized (Rauchs, l997).

The work of the Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Branch of the United Nations will continue, and perhaps be expanded, depending on the availability of funds and resources. Standards for human rights will continue to be a major area of endeavor, including the rights of those convicted and those affected by crimes. An international convention focusing on organized crime is being planned. The United Nations Congress of Crime Prevention and Control, which is held every five years, will be the launching pad for discussions on an international convention that will focus on organized crime. A group of experts, to be used to combat organized crime, will be developed on the basis of the outcome of the meeting of the Organized Crime Commission. The United Nations program on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, established in l98l, completes training seminars, is involved in United Nations peace keeping missions, and cooperates with the Mid-European Police Academy. Other projects include measures to control the sale and distribution of illegal firearms, and protection of the environment. The illegal trafficking in children is a major concern of many countries, and the United Nations is currently reviewing 26 new project proposals in this area. Proposals focusing on providing legal assistance in many of the developing democracies is also a high priority. The United Nations provides financial support and other areas of expertise to the member nations. The requests for assistance from the United Nations always far exceed the funds available for such actions, and thus the requests must be carefully screened. Work with the regional and global international policing agencies will continue and new projects are being considered (Vetere, Personal Communication, l997). An agreement with INTERPOL to strengthen cooperation between the two bodies has already been signed. A clearinghouse on international policing cooperative projects will be developed. This has already begun in Europe, and it will be developed globally. The United Nations will continue to work closely with EUROPOL’s Drugs Unit and work to control money laundering and credit card fraud. It will work with regional and global organizations to control the illegal trade of radioactive materials (Erokhine, l997).

THE LESSONS THAT CAN BE DRAWN FOR STRENGTHENING INTERNATIONAL POLICE COOPERATION IN THE FUTURE

The Netherlands representative observed that policing is the heart of the sovereignty of democratic states. Therefore, control of policing will be one of the last powers given to supernational organizations. The policing and justice powers in supernational arrangements are always maintained by the member nations. The legal system of a nation is an expression of the prevailing political values of that nation, and the criminal laws are formulated by the political system of that nation. Thus, officials of international police organizations will have limited powers in law enforcement areas, and it is believed that this will be the situation for a long time to come. As a result of this lack of real power in the policing area, international police cooperation focuses on reactive law enforcement. Drugs, terrorism, and organized crime are crime problems that are generally of concern for most nations. It is believed that the bilateral partnerships at all levels will improve policing and police cooperation. The essence of international policing is at the operational level, and personnel and the institutional relationships are needed to build an effective system. The strategies to develop partnerships to solve the international crime problems should be formulated and analyzed before the actual international policing structures are developed (Wiarda, l997).

In response to this viewpoint, the presenter from Mexico (Ponce, l997) reminded the symposium participants that policing involves both the use of force and preventing the use of force. All partnerships with other nations, if they are to be successful, must be made in good faith. The cooperative agreements should not be too structured. Instead, they should be natural, and the coordination of the agreements involves giving sovereignty to the person in charge, and respecting the laws and perspectives of all of the countries involved in the agreement. .

Raghavan (l997), a presenter from India, stated that there is considerable cooperation in existence in his part of the world, and it will continue and grow. The development of effective cooperative agreements takes a great deal of time and money. Regional cooperation is easier and more practical than trying to establish global cooperative ventures. This is true because, in regional cooperation, there is at least some commonality and similarity in cultures, languages, and political structures. Two major barriers to strengthening international police cooperation are, first, the fact that the police are often controlled by the politicians, and politicians, being the policy makers, have frequently been reluctant to become involved in establishing strong cooperative ventures. The bureaucrats and the politicians have done a great deal to inhibit international cooperation, through either opposing the schemes that were developed at the grassroots level, or by taking the administration and operational aspects of the projects out of the control of the police. Second, the police subculture may mitigate against developing strong international arrangements. The police chiefs and upper echelons of the police departments may be receptive to change and cooperating in new projects, but they are confronted with problems and resistance to this change from within their own force. It was felt that both the police and the politicians, out of necessity, will eventually have to cooperate more. They must cooperate or perish, because of the nature of the times and the strength of the crime problems. The elite police training academies have an important role to play in the development of effective cooperative police programs. It was argued that too much of the training, discussion, and interaction on international police cooperation has been limited to high level government and police officials. Because the actual operation occurs at lower levels within the police structure, middle management levels should also become involved.

Ebbe (l997) pointed out that international police cooperation is definitely a fact, and cited the various agreements that have already been accomplished. The African nations are ready to expand and strengthen these agreements, and to engage in new arrangements, but these countries do not have the technical skills and the resources to develop them. In short, they need a considerable amount of financial help and technical assistance from the international organizations and the wealthier nations of the world. While bilateral cooperation is very important, because these agreements focus on very specific problems that need immediate attention, they should not supersede the continental cooperation. Countries rely on bilateral agreements as a way of combating such crimes as drug trafficking, sale of children, illegal immigration, and organized crime. The international criminals continue to operate in countries that are not involved in such agreements. Therefore, the continental cooperation and a global focus need to be maintained, if the long range goals are to be accomplished. The problems of internal ethnic strife and political corruption definitely inhibit the efforts of the police. Some politicians actually encourage international crime. It was stated that national sovereignty should be suspended in matters of international crime control.

The INTERPOL representative (El Zein, l997), noted that a distinction must be made between judicial cooperation and police cooperation, in reference to international crime prevention and control efforts. If the reason for an information exchange between two or more nations is for the purpose of having a person arrested, so that he/she can be extradited to the country requesting the arrest, judicial cooperation and police cooperation are not different. In this case, INTERPOL must have a valid arrest warrant from the country requesting the arrest, for the arrest to be made. If the only purpose for sharing information is to prevent crimes, it is a cooperative police matter, but not a legal assistance matter. On the judicial level, some judges may be suspicious of the information given in the request for a provisional arrest of a person, or they may doubt the motives of the receiving country. The conditions for the exchange of information must be clarified. International law requires that the information must be used for the correct purposes. There is no universal agreement on extradition, and there not likely to be one in the near future. A solution to this problem would be the creation of an international criminal court that could deal with the matter of extradition. The question of the nature and types of crimes it should consider is a very important issue. Should these crimes be limited to those of a high, international nature, such as genocide, or should any form of international criminal behavior be heard there?

In general, the symposium participants believed that bilateral, multilateral and global police cooperative ventures are needed. Because countries must be concerned with their own immediate problems, they tend to concentrate on bilateral agreements. These bilateral ventures often lead to regional linkages, since sophisticated criminal types and criminal organizations can usually circumvent the crime control measures taken by the two cooperating countries, by operating from a country that does not participate in the agreements. It was believed by some that the bilateral and regional cooperative agreements can inhibit the effectiveness of the global organizations, if the global organization is not apprised of the information obtained at these levels. Much more attention needs to be given to the coordination and integration of the activities of the agreements at all levels. In addition, a great deal more emphasis is needed on establishing common definitions of the crime problems that the nations are trying to solve through joint efforts (See Neapolitan, l996; Kalish, l988). Research is needed to establish the extent of the problems and identify the types of relationships among the nations that tend to work.

CONCLUSIONS

International police cooperation is a subject that has assumed great importance in the increasingly violent, crime-infested and dangerous world of today (Sanders, l996; Finjaut and Marx, l996; Anderson and den Boer, l996; Nadelmann, l993; Anderson, l989). The International Police Symposium, International Police Cooperation, explored the forms of international police cooperation currently existing, the advantages, challenges, and problems of these cooperative activities, plans for future projects in international police cooperation, and lessons that can be drawn from past experience to strengthen international police cooperation in the future.

The three most prevalent forms of such cooperation are bilateral, multinational (regional) and global agreements. Many bilateral and multinational regional agreements have been successful. Neighboring nations have been able to surrender the rigid adherence to the norm of national sovereignty in the interest of more efficient police work for a concerted attack against transborder criminality, and greater trust and understanding among countries has resulted. Such agreements have gone beyond the conservatism of state-mandated dictates (Liang, l992; Marenin, l986; Bayley, l975) to meet the pressing demands of the times.

International police agreements of all three forms have been advantageous because they have made it possible for the parties to the agreements to exchange intelligence, receive improved training, build mutual trust, develop stronger professional ties, and cultivate informal bonds of a significant nature. Having pushed the agreements
“beyond the law” (Tonry and Reiss, Jr., l993), international police cooperation projects have been found helpful in successful exchange of liaison officers, effective cross-cultural training, cooperative border patrols, and producing a host of byproducts like developing friendships, promoting tourism, and encouraging trade. The United Nations has provided a valuable service in strife-torn and violence-ridden parts of the world by introducing “police as peace-keepers” (Brown, Barker and Burke, l984). Further, this world organization has been able to send the message that “only an international minimum standard . . . can effectively protect human rights.” (Dinstein, l98l)

International police cooperation, however, has not been devoid of challenges and problems. All agreements, including the global ones involving INTERPOL and the United Nations, are affected by financial constraints. There are problems created by geographic factors (extensive borders), cultural and linguistic complexities, dearth of professional standards (corruption of the police), specific difficulties (internal disturbances that create the demise of the civil society), lack of laws relating to organized crime, extradition, passports and other matters, and, perhaps most importantly, lack of trust. Since there is “the contemporary relevance of history” (Barron, l986), the age-old distrust between the English and the Irish or the Mexicans and the Americans has not vanished in the face of ever-menacing crimes like drug trafficking, money laundering, child prostitution, sale of human organs, smuggling of radioactive materials, illegal immigration, and other dangerous criminal enterprises. The Mexicans do not trust the Americans who generally tend to display “belief in the superiority and virtue of the American way of doing things” (Marenin, l986).

Future efforts in international police cooperation will involve attempts to establish civil society, since without democratic stability international police cooperation cannot be achieved. Greater endeavors to train police officers in languages, human rights, and international values will be attempted in several countries. Under the auspices of INTERPOL and the United Nations, as well as regional organization like EUROPOL, efforts for standardization of definitions of crimes, expansion of extradition agreements, and stronger cooperative ventures against pressing problems like illegal immigration will be vigorously pursued. Human rights will be an area where concerted efforts will be invested.

Finally, several lessons that can be learned from the international police cooperation efforts that have occurred. International police cooperation can be strengthened by greater involvement in and attention to the operational level of police activities. Cooperative agreements among police forces of various nations can thrive only
on the basis of trust and mutual respect. Such trust and respect must be “the result of a proactive and deliberate choice” (The Group of Lisbon, l995). In making the “deliberate choice,” the police leaders will have to bear much responsibility, and they must seek full support of the rank and file. It was observed by the symposium participants that the involvement of lower and middle level police personnel is likely to strengthen operational
achievement in international police cooperation.

A survey of international police cooperation covering the four issues discussed at the symposium was conducted through a questionnaire developed by Professor Daniel Koenig of the University of Victoria (British Columbia, Canada). The survey instrument was circulated among the participants of the International Police Executive Symposium’s annual meetings held in Geneva (l994), Onati, Spain (l995), and Yokohama (l996). Koenig’s findings, summarized below, are similar to the views expressed by the Vienna participants.

- Most involvement in international policing agreements seems to be regionally based.

- Financial limitations inhibit the growth of international police cooperative projects.

- The more prosperous countries are viewed as donors, and the less prosperous
countries are viewed as the beneficiaries of international police ventures.

- Widespread corruption within a country leads to ineffectiveness and
impracticality in international police cooperation.

- Viable agreements between two or more countries are much more difficult to
establish if these countries have different political structures, legal traditions, and
value systems, whereas the converse is true if the political structures, legal
traditions, and values of the countries are similar.

A significant number of the respondents, Koenig discovered, had limited knowledge of international police cooperation. This was ascertained from their admissions that they did not know much about the subject or by an analysis of their responses to the questions. In general, the respondents also knew very little about the
involvement of non-governmental organization as a means to stimulate international police cooperative activity. However, in the symposium described in this article, the
participants, who were chose on the basis of their expertise in the area of international
police cooperation, all demonstrated that they had very sophisticated and pragmatic knowledge of the subject.

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*Assistance received from Graduate Assistant Eric Schultz of Western Illinois University in the preparation of this manuscript is gratefully acknowledged.

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