The International Police Executive Symposium (IPES) brings police researchers and practitioners together to facilitate cross-cultural, international and interdisciplinary exchanges for the enrichment of the policing profession. It encourages discussions and writing on challenging topics of contemporary importance through an array of initiatives including conferences and publications.

Executive Summaries

2008 Cincinnati Meeting Summary

POLICE WITHOUT BORDERS: THE FADING DISTINCTION BETWEEN LOCAL AND GLOBAL

Submitted By
Peter C. Kratcoski, Ph.D.
Official Recorder
and
Lucille Dunn Kratcoski
Archivist

* A portion of the material found in this paper is based on a summary of the papers presented at the Fifteenth Annual International Police Executive Symposium held in Cincinnati, Ohio, May 12-16.

Introduction
           
The concept “policing without borders” can elicit a number of interpretations of its meaning. Generally, the concept is used to denote changes in policing in the present global society, where the borders of nations have been virtually eliminated because of  the cooperative agreements made between nations for mutual assistance and aid.  

Other, more general meanings associated with the concept include the changes brought about by the use of  electronics to transmit information and intelligence regarding various types of crimes across national borders and even world wide, without being concerned with the national borders of the countries.  Since much of criminal activity, especially that associated with organized crime and terrorism, crosses national borders, there is a need for a more standardized response to it.  Examples of attempts to establish standardized methods of responding to international crime include the enactment of new laws, use of electronic techniques for international investigations, and even a more standardized approach to police officer training and education.  In this regard, we see large, powerful countries providing equipment and training materials for the police of smaller, less developed countries.  This assistance focuses on concern for human rights.  Respect for human rights is a key principle of the notion of “rule of law,” and respect for human dignity is central to the concept of policing without borders.  The goal of this activity is to help underdeveloped countries produce professionally trained police forces that are comparable to those of the countries providing the training.

Another broadly based notion related to the concept of policing without borders centers of the fact that the police agencies are no longer closed institutions.  In the past, police administrators could more or less establish the operational policies, rules and procedures for the agency they were administrating without having to be concerned with outside forces such as the mass media,  citizen oversight groups, legislators, or  academics. Policies and procedures generally were based on tradition, and administrators followed the traditional ways even when there was considerable evidence that their methods were not always the most effective.  Often the standard traditional approach to police administration did not consider the different needs and rights of the personnel within their own organization and  persuasion from  police professional organizations was needed  before police administrators were convinced that changes in policies would be beneficial to the organization.  In a similar vein, input from citizen action groups helped focus on the necessity  to address some of the specific problems of   certain members of the community. The police administrators were only concerned with their own jurisdiction and did not see the need to join in cooperative ventures with other policing agencies.  Several traumatic events preceding the 9/11 terrorist attack on the World Trade Center and other targets in the U.S. had stimulated the need for policing agencies to cooperate with each other on national and international levels, but this single event, more than any other, triggered the urgency for such cooperation.                 

The Fifteenth Annual International Police Executive Symposium held in Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.A., (2008) focused on policing without borders, the need for international and national cooperation among policing agencies,  and the need for cooperation between the police and  the academic community, private policing agencies and the general public.  This conference was hosted by the Cincinnati Police Department and the Ohio Association of Chiefs of Police and was organized by the Home Office of the United Kingdom.

Sixty-five police executives, government officials, academics and researchers from forty-two countries, representing most of the continents, made presentations at the sessions and took part in formal and informal discussions that focused on the following themes:

  •  Factors that  inhibit effective policing  in a global society such as national terroritorial boundaries, notions of sovereignty and laws;  and the methods that are used to bring about the changes needed to reduce these barriers;
  • The uses of technology, including the internet,  by criminal and terrorist organization to foster international and national crimes and the ways policing agencies  use these technologies to combat international and national crime;
  • The cooperative efforts of  police at the national level to reduce the communication gaps between national, state, and local policing agencies for the purpose of making them more effective;
  • The need to develop global standards for human rights to assure that the rights of people will be protected regardless of  their  national citizenship.
  • Factors that  create borders between the administrators of policing agencies and the personnel of these agencies representing various constituencies,  the consequences these barriers produce, and the methods used to reduce the borders to increase the effectiveness of  policing;
  • The methods used to address  the barriers brought on by prejudicial and differential policing, resulting in some segments of the population feeling that they are being treated unjustly by the police. (Kratcoski and Kratcoski, 2008)

In the following discussion, emphasis will be placed on the need for cooperation, coordination, and integration of  policing agencies, both on the national  and international levels. 

The Globalization of Crime and Terrorism

A nation can no longer rely exclusively on its own security forces and resources to protect its citizens from crime and terrorism. The sources of the threats to the security of a country often are external to the country and can only be controlled through cooperative ventures with  other countries.  For example, a National Institute of Justice Report ( See Sedwick, 2008:5-6), titled Methods and Motives: Exploring Links between Transnational Organized Crime and International Terrorism, indicates that the relationships between organized crime groups and terrorist organizations are becoming regular and permanent. Using information from several research reports on the topic of international organized crime, Sedwick (2008:8) noted that  internationally organized criminal groups are involved in the following types of crimes:

  • Energy and strategic materials markets;
  • Smuggling and trafficking of goods and people;
  • Money laundering;
  • Fraud;
  • Cyber-crime; and
  • Terrorist operations and foreign intelligence.

In order to mount a successful counter attack against international crime and terrorism, a global strategy is needed.  The action plan requires cooperation and involvement from strong powerful nations as well as from nations that have few resources to contribute.  The global strategy developed to respond to international crime and terrorism must be based on a world systems theory.

World Systems Theory

This theory is grounded in the assumption every nation is part of a world economic system.  If one nation suffers some traumatic economic or political upheaval, all of the other countries of the world are affected in some way.  Onwudiwe ( 2002: 1-27). The same analysis can be applied to crime and terrorist activity.  For example, the repercussions of the organized criminal activities  related to drug trafficking that originated in one country will be felt in all of the countries throughout the world in which the drugs are trafficked. The 9/11/2001 terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and other targets in the United States affected most countries of the world either economically or psychologically.  The specific effect international crime and terrorism has on a country is closely related to the amount of wealth and resources a country possesses.  In a very poor country with a weak government, the activities of organized criminal groups and terrorists can destroy  a nation if it does not receive assistance from other nations that are part of the world economy. In the world economy, nations are not equal in power or wealth and stronger nations can exploit weaker nations if some forms of mutual aid agreements are not put in place to counteract the imbalance of power among the nations.  Onwudiwe, (2002:1-27) placed the nations of the world system into three categories; controlling, semi-controlling and exploited.  Controlling nations are the most powerful nations in the world system.  They have the power to exploit the weaker nations, but often will provide assistance to the weaker nations rather than exploiting them because in the long run it will serve their best interests if the weaker nations become stronger, gain political and economic independence and become committed allies.  The semi-controlling nations have sufficient resources to exert some control over weaker nations, but are themselves vulnerable for exploitation from stronger nations, and thus generally join the stronger nations in  mutual aid agreement designed to provide protection  to all of the nations, weak or strong, who participates in the mutual aid agreements.  The exploited nations are generally in a developmental stage.  Their economies are weak and they may have gone through a dramatic change in their political structure. Since the governments are often unstable, the economies are weak, and the leaders are often corrupt, the citizens often are discontented and willing to take any opportunity to improve their welfare.  As a result, these countries are very vulnerable for infiltration and exploitation by organized crime and terrorists organizations.

The strategies followed by many countries of the world to combat international crime and terrorism  are grounded in the world system theory.  The stronger, controlling countries have invested huge amounts of money and  other  resources, including human resources, into assisting weaker nations in the development of their economies, governments and justice systems. Most of this assistance is provided through the establishment of various types of agreements and treaties.

Types of International Agreements

Using a model developed by Benyon (1997:107) international cooperative agreements used by  governments to control international crime can be characterized as consisting of:

  • Macro- level agreements. These consist of constitutional and international legal agreements that are designed to harmonize national laws and regulations;
  • Meso-level agreements. These consist of agreements pertaining to the operational structures, practices, and procedures of the police and other justice agencies when several nations are involved in international policing ventures; and
  • Micro-level agreements. These consist of matters pertaining to specific offenses and the control of a specific type of crime.  

Das and Kratcoski (2001) note that global treaties signed by members of the United Nations, such as those pertaining to war crimes, the extradition of criminals, or the involvement of nations in crisis management, are examples of macro level agreements.  The exchange of information by several countries relating to criminal matters would be a good example of meso-level agreements. Micro-level agreements generally consist of reciprocal cooperative ventures on specific criminal matters by two or more countries.  A multi-nation drug trafficking task force would be a good example.

The United Nations

Several of the presentations at the Fifteenth Annual Police Executive Symposium illustrated how  systems theory is being applied through various forms of international cooperative agreements.  For example as many countries in Europe, Africa and Asia experienced civil and political unrest and blatant violations of human rights by political leaders and the police were observed, the United Nations became more actively involved and established crisis management missions in some of the countries in which internal conflicts were the most pronounced.  The United Nations Congress on Crime Prevention and Control served as the platform for establishing several  United Nations Commissions, including the Organized Crime Commission and the Commission on the Trafficking of Narcotics and the Trafficking of Humans. The United Nations Program on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice developed the mechanisms for the U.N. to become involved in peacekeeping missions, conduct  police training seminars, and establish police training centers that focus on international crime control.   The training of the police in using policing methods that protect the human rights of  citizens is central to all of the  programs sponsored by the U.N. (Das and Kratcoski, 2001:22)

The United Nations Police (UNPOL) is administered under the United Nations Police Division (UNPD).  The Department of Peacekeeping Operations places peace officers from various countries from which a request for assistance has been received. Carpenter (2008) notes that UNPOL missions consist of three phases. The UNPOL first provides security for the citizens.  Often the country is in a state of crisis when UNPOL is summoned and restoring some type of order is an immediate task for the United Nations police.  This task may require UNPOL to assist in maintaining crowd control, making arrests, holding law violators in detention, protecting property and protecting United Nations personnel.  After a degree of stability has been achieved, the second phase begins. This entails rebuilding the justice system by reforming and restructuring, the justice agencies. During this phase, UNPOL assists in the recruitment and training of police and other personnel. If UNPOL is successful during phases one and two, the third phase of its involvement in a peacekeeping mission centers on  a gradual returning of the responsibilities for keeping the peace back to the the country’s justice agencies. The mission is accomplished when UNPOL withdraws. According to Carpenter (2008:6) requests for U.N. police missions have increased and the qualifications needed for police officers recruited for these missions have changed.  In addition to the need for line officers, there is now more need for  police leaders, managers and specialists.

United Nations Peace Keeping Missions’ Human Rights Emphasis

The United Nations’ success in what is now Bosnia and Herzegovina illustrates how a peacekeeping mission can bring stability to a war torn country. (Matijevic, 2008:12 ) reports that during the Bosnia-Herzegovia War, almost 100,000 people were killed,  several millions were forced to leave their homes, and there was mass destruction of  property.  The police were generally helpless in protecting the people’s human and civil rights.  Matijevic (2008: 12) notes that during the war the general security of the country and the protection of human rights and freedoms were at their lowest level. After the signing of the Dayton Peace Agreement and with the help of the United Nations, peace and order and a respect for human rights have been established in Bosnia and Herzegovina.  Matijevic (2008:16)  attributes this stability to several factors.  First  the police structures in Bosnia and Herzegovina are now a key institution of the state with authority to provide stable and safe environment for the citizens and property, as well as respect of human rights and freedoms.  Second, high professional standards in the police organizations are expected. Third, the police have made a concerted effort to gain the trust and confidence of the citizens. This has been accomplished through a community policing approach, with emphasis on providing service  to the people, rather than to a political head of state.

The International Network to Promote the Rule of Law (INPROL) has contributed to a number of United Nations Peace Keeping Missions . This project relies on the professionals and practitioners within the cooperating organizations to connect with each other and to provide information, training and research on  matters  related to police law, witness protection, interim prison security and  the education of the public on the role of the police in a democratic society.   In addition, INPROL assists in the identification of highly qualified individuals to be considered for senior positions in United Nations international policing projects ( Dziedzic 2008: 3,10).

International Policing Within the European Union

The twenty-seven members of the European Union are bound by a number of international agreements developed under the Common Foreign and Security Policy.  The European Security and Defense Policy directs the military and civilian crisis management missions of the European Union (White, 2008).  Crisis management missions involve providing assistance to a nation in crisis by giving assistance in policing, establishing law and order, handling crises such as controlling mobs and protecting property. White (2008: 10) used the crisis management mission in Iraq to illustrate the role Of EUJUST LEX. Several of the specific goals of EUJUST LEX during this mission included:

  • Training senior police administrators; judges, prosecutors and prison administrators in  administrating justice following the rule of law;
  • Using methods of policing that promotes a respect for human rights;
  • Promoting teamwork, collaborative relationships among justice agencies; and
  • Developing professionally trained officers who will be respected by the people.

Plywaczewski and Plywaczewski (2008) described several other programs under the auspices of the European Union that are designed to promote efficiency and effectiveness and to assure that the interests of  the weaker nations within the Union are protected.

Europol (Plywaczewski (2008,1) promotes cooperation among the members of the European Union to increase the effectiveness in combating terrorism and all forms of international crimes.  It gathers, collates, analyzes and distributes information on criminal matters to the member nations.  EUROJUST was developed to facilitate the execution of mutual aid agreements developed by the members states of the European Union. Malme (2008: 8) reported on the trends in crime in Norway and how the Schengen Border Control Agency, FRONTEX , created in 2005, assists in combating  international crime.  He notes that organized crime has become more international, with drug trafficking, trafficking in humans, and money laundering being the most serious of the crime confronting Norway.  The Schengen Cooperative, consisting of 24 countries from Northern Europe, created FRONTEX to coordinate the field management of the external border patrol of the member nations of the European Union that have borders with non- ember nations.  According to Laitinen (2006: 6) the  activities of  FRONTEX are critical to the developing and functioning of the European Union Integrated Management  System.

Several other programs under the auspices of the European Union were developed  specifically to combat the increasing involvement of organized crime and terrorist groups in international criminal activities. The European Anti-Fraud Office was created when research revealed that corruption and fraud were becoming major problems for some countries within the Union.   The Task Force on Organized Crime in the Baltics investigates the criminal activities of organized crime units pertaining to illegal immigration, trafficking in humans, drugs weapons and environmental crimes (Plywaczewski and Plywaczewski, 2008:9).  Bolcsik (2008) discussed the specific  problems Hungary experiences with international crime.  Hungry, a member of the European Union is  surrounded by a number of  central and eastern European nations. The Hungarian Police and various justice agencies play a vital role in assuring that the programs such as EUROJUST, EUJUSTLEX and FRONTEX developed under the Common Foreign and Security Policy of the European Union operate in accordance with the goals established for these programs.  In addition, Hungary participates with neighboring countries in joint task forces  to investigate  specific international crimes such as drug trafficking.. The International Law Enforcement Academy was established in Budapest in 1995 to provide advanced police training for Eastern European countries.  This Academy is jointly administered and funded by the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation and the Hungarian government.  According to (put in interview 2007 director, Personal interview Max Edelbacher and Peter Kratcoski ) the training is modeled after the training the FBI agents receive at the National Training Academy.   The standardized universal approach to police training focusing on international crime and terrorism provided at ILEA is an important method for narrowing of the  differences  in policing created by the different cultures, languages and laws of the  countries involved.

The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) was established in 1995 to develop cooperative operations among the various countries of Europe and cooperative ventures with other countries of the world.  The goals of OSCE include conflict  prevention, crisis management and post-conflict rehabilitation. The activities of OSCE include cooperative ventures relating to preventing trafficking in humans, combating terrorism. conflict prevention, gender equality, economic and environmental protection and external co-operation in policing and police training (http:www.osce.org :1).  The OSCE Training strategy “is based on a joint management and staff- owned approach.  It seeks to enhance the co-ordination of training policies and activities, as well as the development of synergies, and favors co-operation with participating States, other international organizations and training institutions” (hhtp:www.osce.org:1).  The OSCA Training Coordinator is based in Vienna, Austria.

North American Efforts to Close the Borders to Crime and Terrorism

Several of the recommendations for counter-terrorism strategies the U.S. should follow that came out of the 9/11 Commission Report  were:

  •  To assist countries with their economic, technological and educational development, political reform, and law enforcement;
  • To increase and improve cooperation and communications among local, national, and international law enforcement agencies nationally and internationally, and
  • To include the private sector in the strategies and costs related to national security and terrorist prevention. (9/11 Commission Report: 361-398)

Sedgwick (2008) reported that in 2007 all of the five U.S. government Departments: Justice, Defense, Homeland Security, Treasury and State, were involved in cooperative programs with 90 countries directed toward curtailing organized crime and terrorism. In addition, the federal investigative and policing agencies cooperated with many of the 18,000 local and state policing organizations by establishing task forces directed toward organized crime and terrorism.. One of the changes that came out of  9/11/2001 was the establishment of Regional Information Sharing Centers . 

These Centers provide:

  • Investigative support and training;
  • Analytical services;
  • Specialized equipment;
  • Secure information sharing technology;
  • Encrypted e-mail and communications capabilities; and
  • An automated system that enables access by the private sector and non-law enforcement agencies. (Sedgwich, 2008 10-11).

The International Criminal Investigative Training Assistance Program (ICITAP) is coordinated with the U.S. Department of Justice’s Overseas Prosecutorial Development, Assistance and Training Office. (Kratcoski and Henry, 2001: 462). Ducot (2008:4), reported on the mission of ICITAP  which is “to work with foreign governments to develop professional and transparent law enforcement institutions that protect human rights, combat corruption, and reduce the threat of transnational crime and terrorism.  Currently, ICITAP has 17 field offices attached to U.S. embassies and has established programs in almost 50 countries located in various parts of the world. The counties selected for ICITAP programs are generally in a transitional stage. Before a country is selected, there has to be some evidence that the country can sustain institutional development and that its government will consist of some form of democracy.  The staff members selected to provide the training are recruited from various countries, generally from those countries that have cultures similar to the country in which they are placed. The programming used is based on a problem oriented policing model, that is to establish a goal, assess the situation, plan the activities, implement the plan and evaluate the outcome.  Beinhart (2008) emphasized that the training provided must be tailored to the skills and needs of the officers of the host country.  Generally a “hands on” types of training rather than a formal classroom training is provided .Beinhart (2008:5) notes that, “Respect for human rights and human dignity is interwoven throughout all ICITAP training.”
           
As a result of the terrorists attacks of 9/11/2001, the U.S. Departments having the responsibility to protect the security of the nation expanded their international programs,  changed the focus of many of their programs to combating terrorism, and  increased the number and types of international agreements. The  Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) has more than 50 Legal Attache Offices (Legats) located in U.S. Embassies and consulates throughout the world. The FBI agents assigned to these offices work with the police of the host countries in coordinating international investigations, linking U.S. and international resources in critical criminal  areas, and providing training in specialty areas such as counter-terrorism, cyber crime, forensic techniques and human trafficking.  The rules for the joint activities and information sharing are set by formal international agreements between the host country and the U.S. (FBI, 2007: 1)

The U. S. Drug Enforcement Administration has eighty-six foreign offices and, in conjunction with foreign law enforcement agencies, conducts investigations into the criminal activities of international drug trafficking.. These investigations involve gathering intelligence and assisting the host countries in providing training, technical assistance, and equipment. (DEA, 2007: 1).

The U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created in 2003 by the U.S. Congress.  The thrust of this legislation was to unite and integrate twenty-two existing agencies into the DHS structure. In addition, other federal agencies were directed to develop cooperate cooperative relations with  the  Department of Homeland Security to ensure that U.S. national security will be protected.   Several of the key features of the mission of DHS are:

  • To protect air, sea and land transit systems that transport people and goods into the U.S.;
  • To expand the tasks of Customs agents and refocus the role of federal agencies such as the FBI, ATF and DEA;
  • To develop more extensive contacts and  cooperative relations with international information and intelligence sharing agencies such as Interpol, Europol and the United Nations;
  • To develop and coordinate counter- terrorist planning and programs and,
  • To develop liaisons  with the FBI, CIA and the State Department that focus on defending  the U.S. against internal and external threats to its security.

          (Source:http://www.dhs.gov/xabout/structure/)

Several of the presentations at the Fifteenth International Police Symposium illustrated  the programs that  were based on the 9/11 Commission Report recommendations.   Morckel (2008) reported on the types of training and technical assistance provided by DDACTS, a coordinated cooperative venture between the National Safety Administration and the Bureau of Justice Assistance.  This involves a systematic approach to identifying the most difficult crime and traffic problems facing a community, the collection of timely and accurate data, analyzing the data and development of  the most efficient and most likely-to- work plan for responding to the problem.  Morckel emphasized the use of strategies that have already been proven effective by law enforcement agencies and inclusion of a coalition of local partnerships in the solution plan. The local community and law enforcement never lose control of the operations designed to solve the crime problems facing the community.  Federal agencies provide training, resources, technical assistance and evaluation to the programs developed through the cooperative efforts, but do not assume the power to make  policies.  Allison Henry-Potts (2008) discussed the methods used by the U.S. State Department’s  Office of Civilian Police Programs and Rule of Law when it enters into a United Nations Policing Mission or when the U.S. establishes a bilateral agreement with another nation to assist in bringing civil order and rule of law to a war-torn country. The Civilian Police enter the country after some degree of stability and order has been established by the U.N. military contingents. The primary mission of the civilian police is to assist the local police in establishing  law and order  based on the rule of law.   Henry-Potts emphasized that the military should not be involved in training  police, since the military and the police have different missions. The officers selected for the program follow a holistic approach. It is very important that the right officers are selected and that they have the proper types of equipment.  The U.N. or U.S. police officers must be sensitive to the culture of the country being assisted, give attention to the resources available, and  avoid political entanglements and actions that could lead to considerable negative sentiment toward the police officers assigned to the mission.   However, the mission can be an instrument of change.  For example one of the special goals of the Afghanistan mission is to train female police officers to fill higher level positions within the police organization.

Cordner and Shain (2008) reported on a conference held at Eastern Kentucky University, U.S.A., where government and non-government representatives from several countries discussed issues pertaining to rule of law, criminal justice reform, and protecting human rights as they apply to the Republic of Uzbekistan   The conference was funded by grants from the Institute for New Democracies a program under the auspices of the U.S. State Department and the Regional Policy Foundation, an independent, non-government, organization dedicated to protecting the national interests of the Republic of Uzbekistan.  The government and non-government  representatives  attending the conference came to an agreement on a number of recommendations  relating to methods that can be used to protect human  rights in a developing country, the importance of criminal justice reform, new legislation needed, and  how community policing can be used to help build a trusting relationship between the people and the police. (Cordner and Shain, 2008: 13-14).

Canada has a long history of having developed international cooperative agreements to protect its national interests, especially with the U.S.A.  These agreements pertain to immigration, border security and, most  recently, illegal trafficking of drugs, weapons, humans and other goods that can be sold on the open market. Many of these agreements were ad-hoc.  Canada had experienced several major attacks by terrorists on its homeland, and the 9/11/2001 attacks on the World Trade Center and other target in the U.S. drew attention to its own vulnerability from both domestic terrorism and international terrorism.  Hataley (2007) notes that the 32-Point Smart Border Declaration and Action Plan, which created Integrated Border Enforcement Teams consisting of U.S. and Canadian policing agents who focus on preventing drug,  trafficking, the trafficking of weapons and terrorist activities  was the result of the increase in organized crime and terrorist activity Canada was experiencing.

Lemieux (2008) completed research on the effectiveness of international drug trafficking investigations in which Canadian policing agencies participated.  Using data provided by the U.S. Department of Justice and the Drug Enforcement Administration on 61 major investigations completed between 2005 and 2008, he sought to determine why the outcomes of some investigations were successful and led to arrests and prosecutions while others did not have very positive results.  He found that there were 58 countries that involved in one or more of the investigations of drug trafficking .  He discovered that the successful operations were associated with the number of countries participating in the investigation and the “professionalization” of the police cooperation.  The investigative teams performed best when they were together for a long period of time and possessed common professional traits such as training, investigative skills, and dedication to  adhering to high international professional standards. (Lemieus, 2008:13).
 
The Civilianization of Police Work

(Narrowing the Gaps Between Police, Private Enterprise, The Academic Community, Social Service Agencies and The Citizenry)  

It has long been recognized by police administrators that police work is dependent on other agencies and organizations, both public and private, within the community.   Police organizations in an open society are influenced by and often dependent on the national and state legislatures, the judiciary, the mass media, social service agencies, commercial enterprise, educational institutions and the public. The  dependence is often direct, as in the case of private enterprise building the communication equipment and hardware that police need in the modern  age of electronics, or relying on the work of scientists when completing DNA testing related to a criminal investigation, or the influence can be indirect, such as the citizenry being   critical of police practices and the police needing to change practices. Specific examples of the closing of the gap between the police and other institutions in the society through cooperation, mutual dependence, and the sharing of resources and personnel include:

  • Many police organizational and management models are adaptations of  models for administrative used in large corporations, government bureaucracies and public service institutions. These administrative models, such as total quality management and management by objectives, were often developed by research institutes connected to universities.  They eventually were applied to police organizations in modified forms.  COMSTAT. was developed in this way.
  • Police and  social scientists, such as sociologists, psychologists, and political scientists collaborate on developing, administrating and evaluating  community action  programs such as community policing projects.
  • Many of the positions within the police organization that were filled entirely by police officers in the past are now filled by civilians.  These include computer programmers, crime statistics analysts, lawyers, accountants and comptrollers, and  public affairs managers. In addition, civilians fill the relatively new positions within the departments such as police psychologist.
  • Educational institutions offer academic degrees in criminal justice and some institutions of higher learning offer basic and advanced  police training programs. In reverse, police training academies often use academics to provide instruction in specialized topics such as law, human relations and juvenile justice.
  • Police administrators and line officers have obtained advanced degrees in administration, public administration and criminal justice.  Many senior level police officers have taken academic positions on their retirement from the police. Because of their police experiences they are able to integrate the theoretical with the applied in their classroom instruction.
  • Private security agencies and auxiliary police now  assume many of the specific tasks that were the responsibility of public police in the past.  In addition, these private agencies often assist the public police in matters such as investigations of insurance fraud, arson , missing persons and other  types of investigations in which a solution would benefit both the private and  public policing agencies.
  • Private commercial organizations provide the police with equipment specially made for police use, such as armor, tazers, communications equipment, computer software, weapons,  and other paraphernalia. .
  • Police  leaders have become involved in  academically oriented professional organizations.  The contacts with academics made through these organizations has led to collaborative research and publications.

Several of the presenters at the Fifteenth International Police Executive Symposium ( 2008) used material to illustrate how the gap between the police and other institutions in the community is closing as the result of interaction, collaboration, and mutual support.

The administrators of policing agencies have long realized that effective policing in an global society is a complicated endeavor and, to be effective,  officers must be professionally trained and  understand how to utilize the talents, skills  and experiences of professionals working outside of the police  organization. Kratcoski (2004) notes that the present-day challenges facing police are so extensive that those seeking careers in police work must prepare themselves by obtaining educations that will help them understand, conceptualize, and critically analyze the situations and crime related problems they encounter, as well as assist them on developing the skills needed to accomplish the immediate tasks and goals of police operations.  In addition, the education and training received by officers, regardless of the specific country  in which the  training is received, must focus on  obtaining the knowledge and skills that will be useful in policing at the local level as well as  internationally.  Present-day police officers are challenged with developing an understanding of how sophisticated technology is used by criminals, and how organized criminal and terrorist networks operate, how the development of cross-border trade and economic systems stimulates criminal activity, and how movements of people across borders can create conflict as well as crime.  Tong, (2008) remarked that the academic preparation of police should be theoretical and include information gathered from a variety of disciplines. Students preparing for police work  should  interact with students and professors from a wide range of  disciplines rather than be isolated in programs involving specific preparation for police work.  Bryant (2008) emphasized the need for police, especially those who are administrators, to understand the scientific method and how it is used to formulate hypotheses, apply inductive and deductive logic, verify the validity of  research outcomes and be able to test theories relating to crime.  In this regard, most  of the police agencies that require some academic preparation  in addition to basic skill development in their police training  programs should require a course in research methods.

The transplanting of police officials into academics settings and academics into police organizations is becoming more prevalent.  Academics are found teaching in police academies, completing collaborative research with police officials, and making presentations before police organizations, such as the International Chiefs of Police Association.  The Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies was established to establish professional standards for police agencies. Since the inception of CALEA, this independent organization has accredited almost 1,000 police agencies, police training academies and communication centers in the U. S., Canada and Mexico (Cordner, 2008).   Police professionalism is also demonstrated by the fact that police officers are earning advanced academic degrees, teaching in universities, making presentations at the meetings of professional associations and writing for and having their work published in professional journals.

Palmiotto (2008:2) notes that the International Police Executive Symposium,  founded by Dr. Dilip Das has brought together academics and police practitioners, who are also researchers, together to facilitate cross-cultural, international and interdisciplinary discussions and to provide a forum for disseminating information on the findings of their research and identifying and describing police practices that are effective.  Das (2008) emphasized the need for police leaders to share their knowledge with others by publishing in professional journals as well as in trade journals.
           
The importance of the police in becoming professionally involved with academics in research and the development of policies pertaining to police operations was illustrated by several of the speakers at the 15th International Police Executive Symposium.   After Slovenia gained its independence, the Ministry of the Interior established a goal for the Slovenian Police to become professional on a scale comparable to  the more recognized police organizations throughout the world.   In order to determine if this goal was being achieved, he financed research that focused on police professionalism, organization, standards, and practices.  Currently, academics and police practitioners are working together on research projects pertaining to police development and training and police culture. They have attended international conferences, shared the findings of their research, and collaborated with academics and researchers from other countries,  The findings of their research have been used by political administrators to justify changes in the organization of the Slovenian Police. (Mesko and Maver, 2008).

Many times in the past, police agencies would establish new policies, develop new organizational structures or implement new programs without sufficient planning or setting up ways of measuring if the changes, once made, accomplished what was intended.  When the changes were eventually evaluated, it was often discovered that they had not resulted in the accomplishment of the desired goals.  Police administrators often justified implementing programs without research input by saying that the information provided by the academics through their research was either not relevant or that the findings were not made available until long after there was a need for them. William J. Bratton, the past New York City Police Commissioner, when asked how important academics has been to the day-to-day practice of managing a police agency, responded,

 . . .  I really do not use, to any great degree, the work of academics. 

There are several reasons.  One, many academics write for each other, not for practitioners, and when you attempt to read many of their studies, they are literally not readable.  Two, oftentimes their studies are dated.  It always infuriates me that we’re usually reading studies about events and issues of three or four years back.  Policing is much more contemporary than that, and if there was one lesson policing in the 90s it is (that) you need to be timely (Henry, 2000: 560-61).

Bratton’s criticism of the effect the research of academics has on police practices and policies is perhaps rather harsh. Some problems and issues relating to police practices and policies such as corruption,   selection of personnel, developing objectives standards for promotions, researching questionable practices such as racial profiling do not need an immediate response. It  may take months even years of  data collection, using a scientific methodology, to determine if there is a problem and if so, how can it be solved. However, Bloss (2008: 18) emphasized the importance of having on-going relationships between  police organizations and academic research collaborators  in place during the planning and  initiation stages of any new project, policy implementation or  organizational change.  He stressed that this collaboration should continued throughout the  process and include analysis of the effectiveness of the changes after the project was completed.    

The Cincinnati Initiative to Reduce Violence is an example of this type of police-academic researcher coordination.  With the goals of reducing gun violence and gun-related homicides in the city, law enforcement agencies gathered intelligence on violent street groups.  After academic researchers mapped the patterns of violent interaction, teams made up of probations officers, parole officers, and social service and  community service workers made contact with the members of the violent groups and confronted them with the consequences of continuing to engage in violent behavior.  The academic researcher who evaluated the results found reductions in gun-related violence, strong increases in the number of these identified offenders who requested and received social services, and improved police-community relations.  (Engel, Streicher, Whale, and Baker, 2008).  

In two public housing projects in New York, a collaborative practitioner-academic researcher project involving representatives of numerous community agencies and a local researcher used steering committees to set up safety initiatives.  Using a problem oriented policing model, the practitioners and academics identified the needs of the project residents and the possibilities for cooperation and success.  They decided to develop action programs in the public housing setting.  These programs included undercover narcotics investigations, a gang prevention program, a Youth Court, and a prison parolee community re-entry program.  The effectiveness of the programs was systematically evaluated through use of field observations, a specially designed questionnaire given to the residents, and analysis of crime statistics  (Eterno, 2008).

Yokoyama, (2008:3-35), reported on the cooperative programs that were established in Japan for dealing with the drastic increases in juvenile crime that Japan experienced in the second half of the 20th century. The changes in the life styles of youths in present day Japan, especially their increased mobility and their acceptance of the values and cultures of western civilization, resulted in  a need for  the police and other  youth serving agencies to develop new approaches for dealing with deviant youth.  Programs were established in Japan that required input from the police, social service agencies and volunteers from the community.  In 2002, the National Public Safety Commission of Japan authorized the establishment of juvenile support centers throughout Japan.  The  police officers and  counselors who work at these centers focus on changing the behavior of  youths who have committed less serious offenses by diverting them out of the formal justice system and thus avoiding the institutionalization of these youths. In addition, an evaluation of  these programs is completed to determine if they are effective.    Li Chi-mei (2008), reported on the results of Operation Breakthrough, a camp established in Hong Kong by the police  and social service agencies for delinquent youths who were at a high-risk  of re-offending.  The youth sent to this camp, modeled after the “boot camps” found in the U.S., are required to engage in a  rigorous program of physical fitness and other activities geared toward having them change their behavior, attitudes and values. An evaluation of the program, completed by  professors from the University of Hong Kong, revealed that the youths who completed the Operation Breakthrough program improved in self-confidence, physical fitness, attitudes and personal values

Narrowing the Gap Internally: Issues Relating to the Recruitment, Training, Retention and Promotion of Police Officers

Kratcoski (2007:4) noted that the challenges faced by police agencies in the 21st century can be placed into two major categories.  The first relates to police responses to changes in the social and cultural climates of their own countries. These changes may have been the result of significant threats to the security of the Countries brought about by terrorism or crime, political upheaval and unrest, as well by increases in international crime that are related to its globalization.  The second category relates to structural and policy changes within the police organizations. These changes may be partially a result of the growing need to employ more professional, technically trained police officers who can respond to the types of crime problems that have emerged in the global society.  Structural and policy changes within the police organizations must be made to address on-going institutional discrimination, changes in police priorities demanded by the community, including accountability and oversight procedures, new laws affecting police practices, the need to interact and cooperate with local, national and international criminal justice agencies and requests for changes coming from  groups or organizations within the police structure such as police unions and organizations representing the interests of  female police officers.

Palmer and Whelan (2006) suggest that the “new federalism’  in Austria, brought about by the perceived threat of terrorism, resulted in more federal police involvement in internal matters and the development of cooperative ventures between  the federal and  the local police in counter-terrorism strategies.  According to King and Sharp (2007:387), the term “securitization” is useful in illustrating how there has been a significant merging of internal and external security in the United Kingdom. They contend that legislation and policy shifts have resulted in changes in police priorities, with a gradual replacement of the local policing concerns with national priorities.

Other police organizational changes have been brought about by the expansion of the powers of police unions and  the efforts of other organizations  seeking more equitable treatment for minorities and women engaged in police work.  The powers of police labor unions have expanded beyond those traditional areas of negotiating with management to include matters pertaining to recruitment of personnel, salaries, seniority, benefits, and work assignments into areas that have been considered to be exclusively in the realm of management, including issues relating to oversight, accountability, policy development, and changes in the organizational structures.  Fantino, (2008), noted that the police must appreciate the diversity in ages, gender, race, socio-economic status, religions, and cultures that exists in most communities and countries throughout the world and develop a way of responding to this diversity. The barriers of mistrust and hostility between the police and the citizenry that were created  as a result of racism and discrimination can be broken down if the police respond to and interact with the public with respect and trust.  Wong (2008:1) suggested that police should be considered a  depository for social resources, with their effectiveness in solving community problems determined by the amount of time, materials skills, ideas and knowledge they possess.In this regard,the more skills and knowledge they have to deal with a multicultural society, the more effective they will be in their work.

 In a similar vein, as police organizations become more diverse in terms of the racial, cultural and gender composition of their employees, some of the “good old boys” practices must be replaced with policies and practices that are equitable for all concerned.There are many instances of inequities in the recruitment, retention, and promotion of  police based on racial and gender have been documented.  For example, Surender (2008:1) reported that, while changes have occurred in India and some women have reached high positions as police chiefs, nevertheless, less than four percent of the police in India are women, and of these 89% are employed in the lower ranks.  In addition, the large majority of female officers are assigned to work with women and children or on traffic details.  Other research has revealed that female officers who ask for part-time work assignments because of  family responsibilities frequently  find that their opportunities for new training and advancement in the organization become limited (Charlesworth, 2008).  Charlesworth and Harwood (2008) revealed that efforts to develop flexible work practices and part-time work assignments in several police organization in Australia met with considerable resistance from middle and  senior level management. Harwood(2008)  stated that, world-wide, women are underrepresented in key decision-making positions in police organizations.  She concluded that female officers are not found in the senior level management positions to the extent one might expect based on their numbers and experiences because of problems  related to changing the cultures of the police organizations to make them more open for female officers to succeed.

 In many countries, a major reason for the under-representation of racial, ethnic groups and women in the upper levels of police management is that members of these groups are not motivated to enter police work to the extent one might expect. Often  perceptions of a lack of  opportunities in the police profession or few possibilities for success in a police career may be the most important factors in determining if members of certain groups choose the police profession as a career.  When this occurs, women and members of certain racial groups may not be underrepresented in the police organizations as a result of discrimination, but because they excluded themselves.

Kaur (2008) compared the proportion of women police officers in the United States, Germany and India. She discovered that the percent of  police officers  who are women is increasing in India, decreasing in the United States and remaining stable in Germany. She attributed these findings to the fact that women in India are motivated to enter police work because it is viewed as a powerful profession, while in the U.S. women are reluctant to enter police work because it is viewed as a dangerous job.  In Germany, women motivated to enter police work  were impressed with the opportunities for a  secure job with benefits. Kaur (2008), Burns (2008), Mayberry (2008), Wietinger (2008), Boniface (2008) and Robertson (2008) provided information on problems women in police work have experienced relating to sexual harassment, perceptions by male officers that the female officers were not as competent as male officers and other prejudices toward female officers, including discrimination in promotions,  a general distrust of female officers by some administrators, and a lack of flexibility of some administrations to consider the special needs of the female officers.

Summary

In this discussion, we have attempted to demonstrate that the concept “policing without borders” can have a variety of meanings in addition to the one that is most commonly understood in  reference to the geographical and territorial borders that create national physical divisions of countries.  The need for countries to develop international agreements to combat crime and terrorism and to promote a better way of life for all nations was stressed.  In our global society, the importance of having stronger, more economically secure countries, assisting those countries that are in various stages of economic and politically development cannot be overemphasized.Borrowing from the motto used by Alexander Dumas (1910) in The Three Musketeers, “One for all, all for one,” each country in the world systems is dependent on all countries in some way, just as all countries are dependent on each individual country.

The interdependence of nations in seeking solutions to the problems created by international crime and terrorism has also been highlighted here.  Pacts ranging from bi-lateral, multi-national and global agreements, treaties, and commissions formulated by the United Nations and the European Union to informal agreements between two nations are developed for the purpose of implementing more effective means to combat  crime.  The police must rely on international cooperation to combat such criminal activities as international money laundering, cyber-crime,  and international trafficking of  drugs, weapons and humans, since these crimes transcend  national  boundaries. The discussion presented here also revealed that, as the police and justice agencies of various countries communicate with each other, cooperate on police matters, share their expertise and  engage in similar types of training, they learn that their differences in cultures, skills and policing objectives are not as great as they may have supposed.  Generally, those employed in police work want to be professional and effective in the performance of  their  policing tasks. This is true regardless of the economic status of the country in which they are employed, the type of policing agency, local or national, in which they work, or their position within the organization (administration, supervisor or line officer).  Also, in keeping with the notion of professionalism, they want to be justly compensated  and rewarded for their work.This requires that their work output be evaluated solely on the basis of merit and that the evaluation be free from prejudices and  biases on the part of those completing the evaluations.

The notion of police professionalism implies that officers will utilize the technology, information and input from other professionals that will be useful to them in their work. It has been shown  that police can become more effective if they interact and cooperate with other professionals.  Several projects were cited in which the police and academics collaborated  in the planning, implementation, and evaluation of crime prevention programs.

Some police agencies are struggling to reach the high standards of professionalism that has already  been established by other agencies.  For a national police agency, the reasons for the lack of police professionalism may  be related to the overall poverty existing in the country,  a lack of stability or corruption in the government or to a deficiency in the police organization resulting from inadequate funds and resources to support a profession police organization. For a local police organization, the deficiency may be related to  poor administration or insufficient resources and funding.  

Several programs described here illustrate how representatives of police agencies in stronger, more prosperous countries assisted developing countries with resources, information exchanges and  the training of police officers.

One can expect more cooperation, better communications, and the development of common standards for police work as the gaps in understanding and commitment between nations, professions, the police, and the community continue to narrow in the future.

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