Introduction Considerable discourse among the IPES Malta Symposium Organizers, Dr. Dilip Das, IPES Founder, and the IPES Board of Directors, IPES Institutional Supporters and regular members led to the conclusion that the Seventeenth Annual International Police Executive Symposium, hosted by Commissioner John Rizzo and the Malta Police, should address several topics. The topics agreed upon included immigration, mass movement of people, security for tourists, providing external and internal national security in an age of threats from global crime and terrorism, and other matters, such as developing effective global mechanisms to combat international crime and to secure national borders. These topics were addressed through paper presentations, round table discussions and during personal discussions that occurred among the participants representing the countries and international organizations who attended the Symposium.

A major goal of IPES Symposiums is to integrate the technical and educational information obtained during the conference with the experiences obtained through touring, learning about the history and culture of the country, and social interaction with the people of the country. The excellent tour of Malta, which presented the development and evolution of the country from its beginning many centuries ago to its present state, illustrated the fact that the geographic location of the islands of Malta was very desirable for trade and military conquest, and thus throughout its long history its strategic position made it both a prime location for settlement and a prime target for military invasion. The integration of the customs, laws, languages and traditions of the numerous groups of people who immigrated to Malta over the centuries produced a rich, multi-faceted culture that is noted for being distinct, even up to the present time. The speakers and those who provided entertainment at the receptions and dinners provided by the Commissioner of the Malta Police and the Malta Police contributed significantly to an understanding of the culture of Malta and its crime related problems for those from other countries who attended the conference.

During the opening reception, Ponting (2010) developed the theme of the conference by noting that the numerous innovations in communications, technology and systems for transportation, as well as the massive movements of people throughout the world have resulted in many benefits and rewards for those countries affected by these changes. However, the same factors have contributed to many new social problems and criminal activities, and a single country does not have the resources to combat these threats. He emphasized the fact that tourism is a strong and growing industry in Malta. When a small country such as Malta has a large movement of people coming in and leaving the country over a short period of time, the social, economic, political, and law enforcement institutions are directly affected and a great deal of cooperation and communication is required if a high level of security is to be maintained. In addition, a global response to combat increasing problems of prostitution, pornography, organized crime and terrorism is necessary. During the opening session, the speakers further developed the major theme and sub-themes of the Symposium. Dr. Dilip Das (2010), Founder of IPES, emphasized that an effective response to the world’s crime and security problems requires open communication and cooperation of the governments of the various nations and their police, educators and community leaders. IPES was initially founded to bring together in cooperative ventures academic researchers, who have contributed to our knowledge of police organizations, how they are structured to prevent and control crime, and how best to utilize personnel and resources, with police administrators, who are responsible for implementing police operations. The professional journal, Police Practice and Research: An International Journal, was established to strengthen the collaboration between the police and researchers. Dr. Das also emphasized that policing is a moral profession that requires the acceptance of world-wide standards regarding police adherence to human rights and the rule of law.

Police Commissioner John Rizzo (2010) presented a brief history of the development of the Malta Police from the time that Malta became an annexation to the British Empire up to the present time. The Malta Police Act of 2002 resulted in the police being divided into 11 police districts headed by a Police Commissioner. The Malta Police embrace the European Convention of Human Rights and adhere to a high code of police ethics. A spirit of professionalism permeates the entire organization, from the very top administrators to the rank and file patrol officers.

Dr. Bonnici, Minister of Justice and Home Affairs of Malta (2010), emphasized the fact that tourism is the life blood of Malta. The country has something to offer to the very wealthy and powerful as well as to the millions of people with limited resources who visit the country. He also noted that even the most technologically advanced countries that have considerable resources at their disposal and highly professionally trained police forces still must depend on cooperation and assistance from other counties to assure that their national security will be maintained.

Professor Minnaar (2010) delivered the keynote address. He used the World Cup Soccer Tournament scheduled for South Africa in 2010 to exemplifying the amount of intricate planning, coordination of security and police agencies, cooperation, and communications needed to prepare for the security at such an international sporting event. He noted that a critical part of the planning was to analyze international sporting events of the past, particularly those in which the security was lower than desired and in which the number of problems exceeded what was expected. He emphasized that national, local and international agencies are involved in the planning. It is expected that the years of planning for the games will result in having a designated overall command system, clear lines of responsibility, sufficient personnel to handle the numerous tasks, sufficient technical communications and security related equipment and highly trained security officials who are knowledgeable in controlling crowds and skilled in mechanisms for the rapid movement of people in and out of the stadiums. Professor Minnaar also stated that research on soccer hooliganism and the measures used to control it has been quite useful in developing policies, training of police officers, and overall planning for the games in South Africa. In addition, a terrorism threat assessment was completed, and special training, employment of extra officers and the use of sophisticated surveillance equipment will be utilized. In addition, stricter border patrols will be enforced during the time of the World Cup Tournament.

The major theme of the need for planning, coordination, and cooperation by both public agencies and private institutions was further developed by the speakers’ presentations. Alpert (Wuesteward, Alpert et. al., 2010) noted that the security for large scale sporting events in the U.S. is centered on the stadium in which the event occurs and that private security agencies are primarily responsible for the security within the stadium, while public police have the responsibility for the patrolling and movement of people in and out of the city. Research and planning are the keys to assuring that the spectators will have a pleasant experience and large scale disruptions will be avoided.

Rick Sarre (2010) stated that, in Australia, the key to preventing violence and disorder at large scale sporting and other entertainment events was to establish good, positive working relationships between the private and public police. Even though the legal powers of the private police and the public police are somewhat fuzzy, depending on where the action is taking place, turf wars should be avoided at all costs. He noted that everyone involved benefits if the event is completed without having any major disruption, and even though the public police have more powers in controlling the violence when it occurs, the private police are in a better position to prevent the disorder and violence as a result of their positioning within the stadium or hall on which the event is taking place.

Calleja (2010) noted that the Country of Malta receives more tourists each year than the total population of the country. In order to attract tourists to Malta, the tourists must perceive Malta as being a “safe place” to visit. He noted that tourists generally are not targeted for criminal victimization, with violent crime being rare and the most frequent crime against tourists being theft. The police play an important role in assuring visitors that the country is safe. This is accomplished by their presence and their professionalism. It is most important that visitors not only feel safe, but also feel comfortable and that there is not an atmosphere of unnecessary restrictions on where people go or what they do. In contrast, Cole (2010) stated that the various countries of West Africa have been portrayed as being unsafe, and as a result it is difficult to attract tourism, even to those countries of West Africa that are relatively safe. The fear of crime and being victimized is sufficient to keep the tourists from visiting. This image of a country being overrun with violent crime and internal conflict may be based on past events that occurred in the country, such as a civil war or a military takeover of the government, or the police are perceived as being incompetent and corrupt. The mass media helps to keep the image alive. Thus, the fear may persist long after the initial situation that caused the fear has been resolved. Once, a country has been marked as being unsafe for tourists, it is difficult to change the perception. Cole (2010) noted that even with research findings showing that the ordinary tourist is not likely to be victimized, tourists still are afraid to come to the country. He noted that the tourists who are likely to be victimized are the irresponsible tourists. These people encourage their own victimization by being careless and irresponsible. Some are in search of good deals on jewelry and gold, and other have criminal motives. The police do not see the protection of such tourists as a priority, and many of the victims do not report the crimes. At times, visitors report being victimized by the police. In summary, Cole believes that in order to change the general perception about a country in regard to attracting visitors, (this could also apply to attracting businesses and industry) there must be major reforms in the security systems of these West African countries. A change in the police culture must occur, and the police will have to become efficient and accountable. Security should become the concern of both the public and the private sectors, and laws will have to be established that provide some protections for those who are visiting the country. In addition, the notion that tourists must take the necessary precautions to protect themselves by being responsible should be stressed by public service educational programs.

Other themes explored during the first session pertained to providing national security as well as individual personal security and individual rights. Edelbacher and Kratcoski (2010:1) asked a rhetorical question, “How does the government of a country balance the need to provide national security and safety with the demands of citizens for personal security and individual rights?”. It was noted that research finding show that security measures by the government and police have in some cases become so intrusive that people begin to resent those who are charged with looking after their welfare. Security measures considered as excessive were related to those employed at both large scale public entertainment events and public transportation. To counteract the possible negative fallout from having a rigid security system, a professional approach to policing must be developed that provides not only security but also service to the citizenry.

Another theme developed that pertained to global security focused on the inequalities of the various nations participating in a global society. In a global society, not all countries are operation from the same power level. There are numerous differences between the rich, developed countries and the poor, developing countries. The rich and the poor countries may not have the same interest in and resources to combat crime and corruption and to provide comprehensive security to all citizens.

Some important threats to the internal security of a country include:

• Having insufficient basic energy;
• Insufficient electric power;
• Poorly developed financial services;
• Inability to handle natural disasters;
• Wide scale corruption of both public and private officials;
• Labor unrest and conflict;
• Lack of support services for the citizenry;
• Disintegration of the infrastructure.

Important threats that are external include:

• Globalization, in which the poorer countries are often exploited by the rich countries;
• The great poverty gap between the rich and poor, often resulting in wide- scale legal and illegal emigration of people from poor countries to rich countries, resulting in the richer countries experiencing more problems with illegal immigration, human trafficking, organized crime and a drain on the social and medical resources of the country.

The barriers to developing positive cooperative relation between nations were mentioned several times during the course of the symposium, and it was concluded that these barriers must be eliminated or at least reduced before we can think of providing a global commitment to preventing international crime and individual security. No country, even the most powerful, can guarantee security and safety to its people without having internal cooperation among its law enforcement agencies as well as external cooperation with governments and policing agencies throughout the world. The more powerful countries and international organizations, such as the United Nations, the European Union, and Interpol have a responsibility to assist developing countries in achieving security for their people.

The Threat of Transnational Crime and the Development of the Means to Combat Transnational Crime

The negative impact of transnational crime on private industry, world markets, governments, and the peoples of various societies has been documented in research (Edelbacher and Kratcoski, 2010). To combat transnational crime, a number of international treaties have been established, including the International Criminal Court. The agreement to establish this Court, signed by 136 states and ratified by 110 of the 136 states, has as its mission to have complimentarity and cooperation in the prosecuting of the most severe international crimes.

This court does not replace national justice systems, but complements them. The International Criminal Court does not have its own police force, but relies on the police of the nation making the referral to bring the defendant to court. Proceedings are instituted by referrals from a member state or by a prosecutor on its own initiative. Cases are selected for the ICC based on the intensity of the crime. If a national investigation of the crime is already in process, the ICC will not intervene. The ICC is most effective when the law enforcement and judicial system of a country have broken down and rule of law is not evident.

Organized Crime, Illegal Immigration, Trafficking of Humans and Cybercrime

Such crimes as trafficking in drugs, smuggling of weapons and humans, and terrorism are not new, but they have taken on a specific importance as criminal groups have become better organized, more mobile, more intelligent in operations, and internationally organized. In addition, organized crime groups have learned to use the latest modern equipment and have huge resources, in terms of money, equipment and personnel, at their disposal.

Intricate security systems have been developed by nations, generally in collaboration with other nations, to protect the more vulnerable national resources. The policing of infrastructural nodes (areas where waterways, roads, airports intersect) presupposes cooperation between the national police and many other types of security agencies, including private agencies (Marks and Van Sluis, 2010). Nodal policing focuses on the flow of people, goods, energy, capital, and information and communication systems, how these are vulnerable to criminal organizations and terrorist groups, and what type of security system can be established to protect the infrastructure nodes. Marks and Van Sluis (2010) used the Port of Rotterdam, Netherlands, to illustrate how this complex, multimodal and infrastructure node with world wide links could be protected with a change in the security system used to protect the port. The model presented could be adapted to any port that must contend with the smuggling of goods and the protection of the peoples and facilities located in the node.

Seychell (2010) provided information on the organization of the Malta Police for the borders controls used to prevent trafficking of humans and illegal immigration. He noted that borders guards are part of the Immigration Section of the Malta Police and they have responsibility for checks at entry points, immigration checks, investigations of illegal immigration, repatriations of Third World nationals, and detection of drug trafficking, in cooperation with other units of the Malta Police. The Immigration Section is closely aligned with the airport and seaport police. The vast majority of illegal immigrants are coming from North African countries, with Libya being the country from which the majority depart.. Malta is a full member of the European Union and the Schengen Organization and as such has all of the resources of these organizations, in particular intelligence, at its disposal. It was noted that there was a significant decline in the numbers of illegal immigrants apprehended between 2008 and 2009, indicating that the security system is effective.

Border Control Mechanisms to Control Illegal Immigration and Other International Criminal Activity

Edelbacher and Kratcoski (2010) note that the types of international crime that pose the most serious threats to the national security of any country are those in which participation in criminal activities is very lucrative. Some of the most profitable types of international criminal activity include trafficking in narcotics, weapons or humans, financial crimes, such as fraud or counterfeiting of currency and documents, identity theft, money laundering, pornography and other crimes related to the sex trade, smuggling of humans, material goods or body parts, theft of art and historical artifacts, and terrorist activities. The engagement of terrorist groups in all of these types of crime has been documented. Terrorists groups engage in some criminal activities, such as hijacking, kidnapping, piracy, property destruction and identity theft, as a means of furthering their cause and participate in other crimes, such as robbery, drug trafficking and money laundering, to finance their terrorism activities. Organized criminal organizations are profit-motivated and will sell their goods and services to any buyer, including terrorist organizations, that has the funds to pay for them. Thus, the links between organized crime and terrorist organizations are well entrenched.

Antinori (2010) noted that the increasing flow of migrant people to various countries throughout the world has led to an increase in the power of organized crime. The Italian Mafia has profited from illegal drug trafficking as well as smuggling of humans. The Italian Mafia is a complex and well settled criminal organization that not only has considerable financial, material and human resources, but is also entrenched in legitimate corporations. It has considerable power over government and justice officials. The organization is strengthened by blood-tie membership and has an advantage over legitimate organizations in that it uses both legitimate and illegitimate methods to attain its goals.

Terrorism, Drug Trafficking and Tourism

Relating terrorism to tourism, Kesetovic and Koraljic (2010) noted that a major terrorist event can virtually kill the tourist industry of a country. Tourists will generally not come to a country if they do no believe that their personal safety can be guaranteed. Terrorist groups may use the threat of terrorism as a way of creating fear. The group may use such threats as a way of breaking down the confidence of the people in the existing government and, if the country depends heavily on economics, the fear created by such a threat, resulting in tourists not coming, can be devastating to the economy. The authors believe that the mass media has considerable influence on creating a state of fear about the safety of a country that often is not supported by facts, and that the media, particularly television, should be more professional and take the lead in reducing the sensationalism of the news and presenting a more balanced perspective.

Harrison, Assistant Commissioner of Police in Malta (2010) noted that the economy of country of Malta is predominately based on tourism and hat any major crime problem, be it terrorism or trafficking in drugs or humans, could seriously impair tourism. The amount of illegal migration and drug trafficking is not great, but it could be a major problem if the police are not diligent in efforts to prevent and control these crimes. He noted that the major proportion of illegal migration to Malta comes from North Africa. These are people who are being “pulled” to the country in search of employment and a better standard of living. The major proportion of illegal drug trafficking comes from European countries, with the various drugs being transported via sea. To counteract the increased threat from drugs, the Malta Police Force has increased its Policing Drugs Squad, has enlisted the aid of civilians, and entered into cooperative agreements with other countries, The government passed new laws that increased the punishments for drug trafficking.

Linn ( 2010) noted that New York City, a city in which a large proportion of the residents immigrated or are descendents of persons who immigrated from countries all over the world and is at present a multicultural conglomeration of ethnic, religious and ethnic groups, has been a target for terrorist attacks many times during its history. These attacks have generally been symbolic attacks that corresponded with protests against political and economic systems such as capitalism, or national or international events such as the Puerto Rican Independence Movement and the Pro-Germany sentiment during World War I and II. Thus, New York must always be prepared for demonstrations, and for terrorist activity that may not in any way be related to happenings in New York, but is related to something happening in some part of the world far from New York. After 911, all security related functions were improved in New York, and the various local, state and federal agencies responsible for security have developed strategic plans for preventing terrorism. Many new technologies are being used by security agencies, including portable radiation detectors and unmarked helicopters with telescopic cameras.

Rantatalo ( 2010) demonstrated, through the use of a simulated terrorist attack on a nuclear power plant, how the various policing agencies and the Swedish National Counter- Terrorist Unit functions and how it cooperates and communicates with local police units in responding to a terrorist attack. This agency is a good example of employing a systems approach to crisis situations, including hostage taking, kidnapping and other confrontation situations. The major objective of SNPCT is to coordinate resources, personnel, and tactics during such a situation. Another goal is to complete research on the effectiveness of the tactics used to control the situation during an attack. Specifically, the research completed during the simulated attack on a nuclear power plant focused on the minute operational command and looked at critical situations during the response operations that required deviating from the Strategic Operational Plan.

As a result of this research (Rantatalo, 2010), it was recommended that in any crisis situation involving more than one law enforcement agency:

• Everyone in command posts at all levels should have an understanding on how things are done and why the operations are structured in a certain way;
• There is a need to understand the entire chain of command; Field commanders should have considerable autonomy in decision making and should be able to employ “best practices leadership roles” depending on the specific situation;
• There is a need for leadership training in crisis situations. Training needs to focus on all of the parts of the system are integrated;
• There is a need to develop trust, communications and working relationships among all of the agencies involved in the crisis situation;
• Technology needs to be customized so that unnecessary communications during the actual crisis is filtered out of the communications network.

Crimes Related to Migration, Trafficking in Humans, Drugs and Weapons and Cybercrime in Countries in Transition

Both criminals and non-criminals may find countries in a state of transition to be ideal places to settle for a variety of reasons.

A nation can be considered in a transitional stage if:

• It is a moving from a rural population based on an agricultural economy to an urban society with a developing manufacturing base of economy;
• There is a drastic change in the type of government, for example, a movement from a totalitarian form of government to a democratic form of government;
• There is a drastic increase in the overall wealth of the country and a much larger proportion of the population is sharing the new wealth. This new wealth can be the result of new resources being developed, for example oil, gold, or natural resources being developed bringing in tourism;
• There is a dramatic decline in the economy of the country resulting in population decline; and
• During periods when the normal life of the citizenry has been disrupted by war, civil unrest, internal civil conflict, natural disasters and other factors.

Generally, during the periods when a country in transition, the opportunities for criminals increase. In addition, the costs related to criminal activity, and the likelihood of being caught and placed in prison are low. For example, Bezuidenhaut (2010) mentioned that millions of immigrants have come to South Africa in recent years. Some of these immigrants are living legally, but many are in the country illegally. The police and other law enforcement agents have a difficult time identifying and separating the legal and illegal immigrants and both groups become victims of various types of crime, particularly violent crime. The South African Police has implemented sector policing (a form of community policing) in some of the high crime areas to try to reduce the crime problems existing in these areas. The sector policing involves:

• Assigning a small number of police to work in a small geographic area;
• Having the police be very proactive and eliciting cooperation from the residents living in the area;
• Adjusting the police tactics to what is considered “best fit” for the characteristics of the area;
• Sending a clear message to the politicians who are often confused about the role of the police, particularly in regard to the amount of emphasis the police should place on service compared to the amount of emphasis they place on law enforcement and crime prevention.

The representative from China (Chuanyu, 2010) remarked about the drastic geographic mobility of peoples of China starting around 1995, when hundreds of millions left rural areas to seek employment in urban areas. This desire to move about internally within China was brought about by changes in the laws in China which reduced the restrictions on geographic mobility and enhanced the perceived opportunities to have a better life with more opportunities if one lived in urban areas. It has been very difficult for the justice system and the welfare agencies to meet the challenges of the large increases in broken homes, unsupervised children, victimization of those most vulnerable, particularly children, and the overall increases in crime brought about by the rapid changes in the society.

Japan, a country that has enjoyed a high standard of living and stability in government (Yokoyama, 2010), still has an increasing crime problem, particularly with the youth. Since 1980, Japan has experienced an increase in international crime. A series of economic depressions in other countries, along with other internal crises in these countries resulted in Japan being a destination for millions of people either fleeing from their country or leaving their country to seek a higher standard of living elsewhere. This influx of new people has resulted in increases in crime, with, in many cases, the new immigrants being the victims. The Japanese government has tried to combat this threat to the stability of the country by passing new legislation and setting up new international cooperative agreements. For example, in 1980 a Law to Aid International Investigations was passed, and in 1985 the Training Institution for International Investigations was established. Since many of the international crime problems are related to illegal trafficking in humans, The Immigration Control and Refugee Recognition Law was passed in 1989. Among the programs the police have established to control the crime problem related to immigration are:

• Programs to help poor families and the homeless;
• Programs geared to preventing victimization;
• Increasing patrols to prevent trouble between foreigners and residents;
• Programs to reduce smuggling of humans;
• Reducing the opportunities for foreigners who are in the country illegally to find employment;

In Kosovo (Verbovci and Albrecht, 2010), the police have established many programs to combat the effects of the civil war, ethnic conflict and corruption in government that left the country very vulnerable to criminal activity. Kosovo is plagued by poverty, high unemployment, under-development of natural resources, and weak leadership and corruption in government. Although independent, it is not recognized by many countries of the world. The society, which formerly was based on a very traditional culture and legal system, is now more influenced by western values, norms and governments based on the rule of law. Large numbers of young families have moved from the rural areas to the urban centers and many of the traditional values and norms have been discarded by the younger population. Juvenile delinquency in Kosovo has increased in recent years. In response to this increase, the authorities have adopted an approach similar to that found in the United States and other countries by creating a juvenile justice system separate from the criminal justice system. For example, the National Strategy and Action Plan for Youth (2009) focuses on protecting youths who are victims of crime, improving the educational systems and encouraging youths to complete their high school education, providing special training for police officers who work with juveniles, and establishing separate detention centers for youths who are incarcerated.

Cybercrime

The manner in which technology relates to crime causation and crime prevention emerged as a central theme of the symposium, with several of the presenters focusing on how modern technology is used to commit crimes and how it can be used to prevent criminal activity.

Lowry (2010) noted that number of cybercrimes reported throughout the world is growing at a rapid rate and that the complication of the cyber system makes it easy for criminals who have the “technological know how” to commit international criminal acts and national crimes via the internet. To be successful in counteracting cybercriminal activity a coordinated approach involving business, industry, government, universities, and law enforcement officials is needed. The police must become knowledgeable in the cybercrime techniques used by criminals and enlist the assistance of private and public organizations in developing strategies and programs to combat cybercrime. Lowry used routine activities theory to illustrate how one can obtain an understanding of local and global cybercrime. Simply this involves a motivated offender, finding a suitable target (victim) who does not have a capable guardian (protector). Caruana (2010) noted that the complexity and volume of cybercrimes requires a national and international response if cybercrime activity is to be controlled and prevented. Often victims of cybercrime do not even know they were victimized, and in some types of crime such as fraud, or theft of identity and documents the victims often do not know how to respond. Local police and even national police do not generally have the expertise and resources to combat cybercrime.

Police Administration, Leadership, Professionalism, Corruption and Burnout

Throughout the conference, speakers emphasized the need for police officers at all levels to become better trained and more professional in performing their work tasks. Lauritz and Karp(2010) noted that new recruits to police organizations often accept the public image of police which may present police officers as being lazy, unprofessional, or even racists. In addition, they perceive the media and the public as generally being hostile towards the police. Thus, a critical function of police training is to “debunk” the perceived image of police and police work that officers may have and instill the notion that police work is a professional, prestigious occupation, requiring the development of various skills and worthy of respect from the public. In addition, to remain professional, officers are required to upgrade their skills throughout their careers, if they are to meet the new challenges confronting them.

Several of the presentations focused on preparing police administrators to become effective leaders. This requires the development of many skills, including planning, organizing, recruitment of personnel, responding to crisis situations, budgeting of funds and resources, interacting with the public and mass media, and dealing with police deviance and corruption. The skills needed to be an effective police leader are constantly changing. Police administrators are being faced with many new problems, and their abilities to handle these problems, many of which are highly stressful, are often tested to the limit.

Thomas Back (2010) discussed the Nordic Safety and Security Project, in which the police and universities developed methods to measure police leaders’ abilities to handle stress and mentally prepare themselves for crisis situations. The goal of the research is to have police leaders avoid burnout, by establishing capacities to stress. The competence to handle stress and respond adequately depends on the individual, the situation, and the organizational factors available to respond to the situation. Generally, police leaders are competent to handle the problems, and with training they will become aware of their abilities and limitations and will establish the proper mental framework. Desirable police leadership qualities generally include being broad minded, competent, honest, inspiring, dependable, fair-minded, and forward looking, but these abilities are best measured by the actions of the leaders rather than what they or other say about their abilities.

Kirby, in his keynote address (2010) emphasized the need for police leaders to focus on global crime matters. He noted that national boundaries are becoming more and more meaningless and that criminal organizations are connected by intricate systems of communications and transportation. Often, the criminals have more sophisticated tools and greater resources than the police. He advocated the use of transitional policing, in which the local or national police agency initiating the criminal investigation will maintain the leadership and final responsibility for criminal investigations and other law enforcement matters, but will often have to rely on the cooperation and resources of other police units located in others countries for assistance in completing the process.

Police Deviance

Albrecht (2010) focused on police corruption and deviance, a critical matter facing police administrations throughout the world. Using the New York Police Department as an illustration, he traced the history of police deviance in that city and revealed that bribery, corruption, citizen abuse, nepotism, and political interference were imbedded in the organization almost from the beginning, and that the various attempts to eliminate police deviance have been unsuccessful until recently. The current NYPD Corruption Control Strategy is grounded in the “zero tolerance” Problem Solving Initiatives incorporated into the master plan of the NYPD. Under this plan, the Internal Affairs Division has been ungraded. The officers in this division are required to have a college education and have both management training and specialized training in internal affairs. Officers found to be involved in any form of deviance are punished in accordance with the severity of their deviance. In addition, citizens are rewarded for reporting police deviance. It was mentioned that the large majority of the police in New York City, as well as the police throughout the world are not corrupt. However, if the situation is such that the small number of police who are deviant are protected by the system (Blue Wall of Silence), the potential for the corruption to increase and permeate throughout the entire department is always there. If a model similar to that used by the NYPD is instituted by a police department, it may not lead to a total elimination of corruption and deviance, but a least a message is sent that such behavior will not be tolerated.

Police- Academic Cooperation in Research and Training

Planning, organizing and strategy development are components of administration that are critical to effective administration. Police administrators rely on many sources of information from within the organization as well as information generated externally to develop the missions and goals for their organization, as well as the master plans and strategies that must be implemented to achieve these goals. A major source of information as well as assistance can come from academics employed at nearby universities, who often conduct research on topics of interest to police administrators, and at times are involved in the basic and advanced training of police officers. A roundtable discussion group, consisting of both academics and police administrators, focused on the collaboration between police research and practice (Wuestewald, T. Alpert, G. P. Marks, M. Steinheider, Durben, B.F., Fleming, J. Fyfe, N. Kirby, S. and Taylor, C., 2010). The comments of this group can be summarized in terms of costs and rewards. Any interactions, transactions and agreements pertaining to researchers and police involve determining how much cost is involved for both parties and what the likely rewards will be. Neither police nor academics are likely to be interested in developing a contract if the perceived costs outweigh the perceived rewards. For example, the rewards for the police might include the production of information that is useful in developing plans and strategies, determining if current organizational strategies and crime prevention programs are effective, or discovering the most cost efficient way to utilize personnel and resources. If the research cannot provide practical solutions to administration questions in a timely manner, the administrator may determine that the costs of the research exceed the rewards received. Academics are motivated to complete research by monetary gain and opportunities to enhance their professional careers. It is important to know what motivates the researcher and what motivates the police administrators before engaging in collaborative contracts.

The suggestions given by the discussants on how to maximum rewards for both researchers and police administrators were:

• Develop trust and understanding between the parties involved;
• Researchers and administrators should be able the show the potential benefits derived from the research;
• The researcher should have a good product;
• Both researchers and police administrators are up-front in stating the purpose of the research. There should be no hidden agenda. Police have the most to lose if the results of the research focus on an area of policing not determined in the original project design (For example, focusing on corruption when the topic was efficient use of personnel);
• Researchers need mentors to help open the door. Many police administrators had obtained advanced degrees, are knowledgeable of how scientific research is completed and can identify those people who have gained a reputation for completing good research;
• Researchers should illustrate the similarities between scientific research and police work (investigation, interviewing, gathering facts, developing hypotheses);
• Researchers should become involved in the police culture. Try to understand the job, be good listeners, be sensitive, avoid a “know it all attitude.”

Some of the road blocks mentioned that may inhibit collaborative research between the police and academics include:

• There must be a closing of the gap between theory and practice. Researchers do not always have the answers to the important questions. If the recommendations are implemented, what impact will it have on the overall administration of the department? For example, would the implementation of a pilot program in community policing require the reallocation of resources from some other area, such as patrol?;
• There is a lack of communications, often tension between the academics and the police. Police learn how to do their work while on the job. Researchers do not understand the nature of the work performed by the police.
• Police departments have their own research unit;
• Competition with private research organizations;
• Politics. The fear that the results of the research may be politically damaging;
• Cost.
• The police organization does not have the money, or the cost of the research is likely to exceed the benefits received from the information obtained.

It was concluded that the gap between the academic and the police is gradually closing. The cooperation and coordination of the activities of the police and the academic community on such matters as research, training, crime prevention programs, and development of equipment and tools the police use in their work will generally increase. In addition, a greater proportion of police are pursuing college degrees and becoming more knowledgeable of academic research. Also, the increased interaction between the police and academics provides opportunities to develop personal relationships and the type of trust needed. The nature of crime has changed, becoming more complex, and the police need the type of expert knowledge that can only be obtained in the university. Also, some police administrators are teaching courses at the university level and this gives them an opportunity to combine their knowledge obtained in the academic setting with that obtained on the streets.

Trafficking of Humans and Human Body Parts in a Global Society

Members of organized crime units have found smuggling and trafficking of humans as well as the trafficking of human body parts to be a very profitable enterprise. Human smuggling can be distinguished from human trafficking in several ways. Smuggling involves a contract in which the smuggler agrees to transport a person to a specified destination and assist that person in illegally entering into a country. The contract ends once the destination has been reached. With trafficking, the same contract applies, with the exception that contact is maintained. The trafficked person still has a debt to the trafficker. (Edelbacher andKratcoski, 2010). Humans migrate to other countries either legally or illegally for various reasons, but the larger proportion are being “pushed out” of their native country because they are impoverished and/or are seeking a better standard of living or they are being pushed out because of political conflict or civil war, or they are experiencing some form of religious or racial discrimination in their native country (Vassallo, 2010). With trafficking as well as smuggling, a number of laws are generally broken during the completion of the illegal process. Often documents, such as passports, are either stolen or counterfeited, money is laundered, and officials are bribed. Once the person is established in the destination country, the personmay be forced to engage in an illegal occupation and is in constant fear of being detected as an illegal alien (Vassallo, 2010).

Taylor (2010) and Adki (2010) noted that, next to the drug trade, human trafficking is a very lucrative source of income for organized crime groups. More than 150 countries have been identified as being involved in human trafficking in some way, and billions of dollars are made illegally each year through human trafficking. The larger number of women who are trafficked end up in the sex trade. They are often forced into “sexual slavery.” Taylor (2010) noted that women who are trafficked are often lured into the arrangement by family or friends and they are generally not aware of the negative consequences until after the destination has been reached. There are many dangers involved including, violence, sexual abuse, as well as a decline in their physical and mental health.

The prevention and control of human trafficking, particularly the trafficking of women, requires a multifaceted approach. Programs must be developed to address the needs of the women who are trafficked and end up being victimized in many different ways. The various countries in which trafficking is a major problem, because they are originating countries, pass through countries, or destination countries, must engage in international global and bi-lateral cooperative agreements pertaining to the improvement of security and the enforcement of laws relating to illegal immigration. For example, (Vassallo, 2010) the country of Malta, having a fairly high standard of living and opportunities for work, is a destination country, with the originating countries for the majority of the humans being trafficked coming from Eastern European countries. According to Adki (2010), India is a source (originating), transit, and destination country for human trafficking. Economic factors, such as poverty and unemployment, social/cultural factors such as the use of the dowry, lack of family support, or rigid traditional and religious practices, and political factors were some of the causes that could influence a person to emigrate from India. Adki (2010) summarized the elements of human trafficking of women, the large majority of whom will become prostitutes, into three phases. The process phrase involves recruitment and harboring of the persons to be trafficked. The means used to recruit generally involves force, fraud, and coercion. The end phase of the process results in the women being in bondage, stripped of their legal and human rights, and living in fear.

In Vietnam, the human trafficking trade is very complicated, with organized crime networks in control of the enterprise (Do, 2010). Humans are trafficked for various reasons, including provision of labor to countries in need or sexual exploitation. For children, some are presented up for adoption, or others are forced into prostitution and pornography. Some of the trafficked persons become involved voluntarily, pulled in by the lure of excitement, or employment, while others, particularly children, may have been kidnapped or even sold to the criminal leaders running the organization. The penal code was changed in 1999. Article 120 of the code provides for severe penalties for those arrested for trafficking in children and the number of arrested offenders has increased. Still, according to Do (2010), much work has to be done, including improving the performance of law enforcement officials and having women officers as leaders in the police training. In addition, the community, youth serving agencies, women’s organizations, and those who are victims of trafficking must work closely with the police to prevent and control human trafficking. Finally, it is recognized that Vietnam’s problems with trafficking of humans is part of the global trafficking problem, and international cooperation and agreements with other countries are necessary.

Pipitone (2010) remarked that, with the creation of the European Union and the resulting reduction of border controls and the free passage of members of European Union countries into economic areas, the effect has been an increase of illegal immigration and human trafficking, and it has become more difficult to control. Italy is also a contributor to the Schengen Agreement and is subject to the rules and regulations of that organization that pertain to immigration.

Since Malta is located close to Southern Italy, it has been a transit country for immigration to Italy for centuries. Currently, a large number of persons from Egypt and Albania first land in Malta and then attempt to enter Italy by sea. Illegal immigration has become defined as a major security problem in Italy and the security forces have been increased to combat this problem. The major thrust of the security is to intercept the illegal immigrants before landing and, after interviewing and determining that they do not have any legitimate claim to enter the country, arranging to send them back.

Hagenmeier (2010) reported that a recent court decision in South Africa ruled that the Constitution provides that children, regardless of their origins, be given social and economic rights. The court ruled that these rights apply to all foreigners even if they did not enter the country legally. He noted that various attempts have been made to circumvent the provisions in regard to providing services and rights to foreign- born children whose parents entered the country illegally, and several private organizations have been established to investigate alleged violations of the laws pertaining to rights of children.

In regard to protecting and providing services to trafficked women who have been victimized, the United Nations has recommended that standards be established that address their serious health problems, that nations prohibit the detention, removal, or deportation of trafficked women, and that they provide appropriate services to those victimized and in need (Taylor, 2010). On the national level, the police need to become more aware of the situations trafficked women are involved in and work with health and welfare organizations, as well as with private volunteer groups.

India has integrated an international and national approach to deal with the victimization of women who have been trafficked to that country. Various multi-national and bi-lateral agreements have been made with other countries. On the local level, creation of special police stations in which the officers are all women, sensitivity training for officers, and anti-human trafficking units have been established in an attempt to reduce the number of women trafficked and to provide some service to those women who were victimized (Adki, 2010).

Roelofse (2010) provided a perfect example of how international cooperation by the police, through the exchange of information and sharing of resources, can result in positive results and the elimination of potential problems. He noted that South Africa, the site for the 2010 World Cup Soccer Matches, had the advantage of learning from the experiences of the police and security forces who provided the security in Vancouver, Canada, recent site of the World Olympic Games. In regard to controlling the sex trade and the likelihood that there would be an increase in demand for sexual experiences, using the Vancouver experience as a guide for planning and strategy development, the South African Security forces concluded that their current law enforcement mechanisms were not sufficient to control illegal land and air entries into the country. In addition, there were already sufficient numbers of women in the country to provide for the sexual experiences that might be desired. Thus, considerable efforts were directed toward reducing the demand side of the illicit sex trade. This was done through public education and awareness programs, emphasizing the risks involved, and coordinating with community service organizations, such as the Salvation Army and Rescue Line, organizations that assist women who have been victims.

Perrot (2010) completed research on the sex trade in Angeles City, Philippines and Gambia and found that the lucrative sex trade is supported by organized crime, and local government, including the police, and caters to the white male tourists who visit the countries. The real victims are the women and girls who provide the sexual services. They are often stigmatized and harassed by members of the general population, who consider them to be “sinners.” Measures to address the problem include educational programs that provide human rights training for women, and community and school based outreach programs.

Trafficking in Human Organs

An area that has emerged as a criminal justice problem and is likely to grow in significance in the future is that of international trafficking in human organs. Some research on this topic has taken place, and a multi-disciplinary approach to understanding and addressing this phenomenon is needed. For example, research has been completed in which theological, medical, ethical, and philosophical perspectives, specifically the sale for profit of body parts, have been given consideration. Other research has considered this area from a business and economic perspective. Research and methods needed to regulated this process and prevent criminal involvement are not well developed.

Mijoric-Das (2010) noted that the demand for healthy human organs such as kidneys and livers far exceeds the supply of such organs. Thus, the door is wide open for any enterprising business person to make a huge profit, if a source can be found to supply the body parts that are in huge demand. Often, altruistic donations of vital organs are given by relatives, spouses or close family friends. The question of using or selling organs from executed prisoners raises legal and ethical questions. At times patients, even rich ones, may die while waiting for a donor. Thus, the trafficking in human organs is based on increasing the supply of organs by buying such organs from willing donors at a low price and selling these organs at a very high price to those who have the money to pay for them. The traffickers locate donors in countries where very poor people are willing to give up parts of their bodies for financial gain. To date, the laws and international alliances regulating such transactions are not very clear and there are many ethical questions that must be addressed.

The Future of Policing In an Increasingly Globalized World

The participants of a roundtable discussion (Mears, R. Fleming, J. Edelbacher, M. Kratcoski, P. Djorovic, I. Simonovic, B. Storey-White, K. Elion, E. Mujanovic, E. Wakefield, A., 2010) focused on future trends in crime and policing. Wakefield, 2010) remarked that the world is divided by change. Providing national security of any nation is closely intertwined with the national security of all other countries of the world. In order for nations to assure national security in the future, partnerships at all levels of government and policing must be created.

Other conclusions and recommendations that emerged from the panel discussion were:

• The types of crimes that will likely continue to be major problems for the global policing community include cybercrime, money laundering, trafficking in drugs, weapons, humans and human body parts. The victimization of women and children will continue to be a major crime problem for most nations.
• More criminal organizations are likely to become international in scope and will become more powerful and difficult to control. The leaders of these criminal organizations are highly educated, especially in finance and law, have extensive resources to use in pursuance of their goals, and will use any method, including terrorism, to bring about the desired end for their activity;
• The use of all forms of modern technology will become vital to the daily operations of all police organizations, including local, national and those having international jurisdictions. Likewise, the more sophisticated criminal organizations will be up-to-date on the latest equipment that will be useful to them;
• There will be a need to increase the international cooperation in law enforcement. In addition, international law enforcement agencies must be created. This will require the passage of laws that transcends national borders and may result in some reduction of national sovereignty;
• As the economies of underdeveloped nations are strengthened and as their governments become stabilized, these nations will assume a greater role in preventing and controlling global crime. Rich countries must assist poor countries in their development without exploiting them. In conjunction with this, one would expect the amount of corruption in an underdeveloped country to decline.
• Police will become better educated and trained, particularly in international Policing, in order to address the challenges presented by the modern criminal. and the World Criminal Court must be strengthened to play a greater role in international crime matters;
• Public-police partnerships with the private security, community crime prevention organizations and citizen volunteers are vital to national and international crime prevention.

References:

Adki, S. (2010), “Human Trafficking: Police Response in Andrha Pradesh State,” Presentation at the 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Albrecht, J. (2010), “Initiatives to Improve Integrity and Abuse: The New York City Police Department Model,” Presentation at the 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Alic, M. (2010), Commentary on Panel # 1 of the 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Antinori, A. (2010), “The Italian Mafias and the Migrant Smuggling,” Presentation at the 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Back, T. (2010),”The Importance of Mental Preparation for a Successful Work in Critical Situations,” Presentation at the 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Bezuidenhout, C. (2010), “Sector Policing – Case Closed or Not?” Presentation at the 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Bonnicci, C.M. (2010), Opening Address, 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Calleja, P. (2010), “Tourists As Victims and Criminals,” Presentation at the 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Caruana, P. (2010), “Internet Crime,” Presentation at the 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Chuanyu, X. (2010) “Policing Model Reform in China at Time of China’s Reform and Opening Up.” Presentation at the 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Cole, B. (2010), “Tourism and Security Sector Reform in West Africa: Policing the Irresponsible Tourist,” Presentation at the 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Das, D. (2010), Introductory Address, 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Do, A. T. (2010) “Trafficking in Humans in Vietnam,” Presentation at the 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Edelbacher, M., Kratcoski, P.C. (2010), Protecting the Borders in a Global Society: An Austrian and American Perspective,” in John A. Winterdyk and Kelly W. Sundberg, eds., Border Security in the Al-Qaeda Era. Boca Raton: CRC Press: 77-120.

Edelbacher, M., Kratcoski, P.C. (2010), “Providing National and Human Security at Home and Abroad,” Presentation at the 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Harrison, N. (2010), “Trafficking of Drugs,” Presentation at the 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Hagenmeier, C. (2010), “Policing of Migration:Human Rights Abuses in Holding Facilities in South Africa,” Presentation at the 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Kekovic, Z., Kesetovi, Z., Milasinovi, S. (2010), “Security Threats and Hotels as Soft Targets,” Presentation at the 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Kesetovic, Z., Koraljic, N. (2010), “Terrorism, Risk Perception,” 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Kirby, S. (2010), “Policing, Leadership Challenges in An Age of Mobility,” Keynote Address at the 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Lauritz, L.E. Karp, S. (2010), “The Construction of a Professional Identity—The impact of Selection and Distrust,” Presentation at the 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Lewis, J. (2010), “Countering Cyber Crime and Cyber Terrorism in the Public Domain,” Presentation at the 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Linn, E. (2010), “Best Practices for a Target City: Counter-terrorism in the NYPD,” Presentation at the 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Lowry, K. (2010), “Cyber and International Crime,” Presentation at the 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Marks, P., Van Sluis, A. (2010), “Rethinking (Nodal) Policing in the Port of Amsterdam,” Presentation at the l7th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Mears, R. Fleming, J. Edelbacher, M. Kratcoski, P.C. Djorovic, I. Simonovic, B. Storey-Whyte, K. Elion, E. Mujanovic, E. Wakefield, A. “The Future of Policing in an Increasingly Globalized World,” Roundtable at the 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Mijoric-Das, A. (2010), “Transplant Tourism: Kidney Transplants and Organ Trafficking,” Presentation at the 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Minnaar, A. (2010), Keynote Address, 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Morrison, C. “Marjolein Muys: Substance Use Among Migrants – The Case of Iranians in Belgium,” Presentation at the 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Mujanovic, E. (2010), “The Challenges for Police in a State with Emerging Tourist Industry – Bosnia and Herzegivina,” Presentation at the 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Perrot, S. (2010), “Policing Sex-tourism in the Philippines and the Gambia: Different Cultures, Different Actors and Different Strategies,” Presentation at the 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Pipitone, G. (2010), “Immigration Law Enforcement and Compliance with Human Rights in the Mediterranean Sea, an Italian Perspective, Presentation at The 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Pointing, J. (2010), “Is the Status Quo Still Acceptable in Terms of a Changing Global Crime Menace? Is There not an Argument for Broadening the Terms of the ICC?” Address at the Opening Session of the 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Rantatalo, O. (2010), “Police Tactics, Leadership and ICT in Incident Command: A Case Study of the Swedish National Police Counter-Terrorist Units Strategies for Flexible Handling of Incidents,” Presentation at the 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Redo, S. (2010), Reply to Opening Address, 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Rizzo, J. (2010), Welcoming Address, l7th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Roelofse, C. (2010), “Human Trafficking and the World Cup in South Africa,” Presentation at the 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Sarre, R. (2010), “Policing and Security For Major Events,” Presentation at the 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Seychell, A. (2010), “Illegal Immigration and Border Control,” Presentation at the 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Taylor, C. (2010), “The Global Menace of Human Trafficking—a Challenge for Police Agencies,” Keynote Address at the 17th Annual Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Vassallo, P. (2010), “Trafficking in Human Beings: A Maltese Perspective,” Presentation at the 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Verbovci, F. Albrecht, J., “Juvenile Delinquency in Kosovo,” Presentation at the 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Wuestewald, T. Alpert, G.P. Marks, M. Steinheider, B. Durben, F. Fleming, J. Fyfe, N. Kirby, Stuart Taylor, C. “Collaboration Between Police Research and Practice,” Roundtable at the 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.

Yokoyama, M. (2010), “Policing Foreign Offenders Visiting Japan,” Presentation at the 17th Annual International Police Executive Symposium, Valletta, Malta, March 14-19.