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Executive Summaries

2002 Turkey Meeting Summary

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY OF THE NINTH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE INTERNATIONAL POLICE EXECUTIVE SYMPOSIUM

POLICE EDUCATION AND TRAINING: A COMPARATIVE GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE

Antalya, Turkey, May 21-24, 2002

Submitted by Peter C. Kratcoski, Ph.D., Official Recorder

The Ninth Annual Meeting of the International Police Executive Symposium was held in Antalya, Turkey, from May 21 through May 24, 2002. The theme of the meeting was “Police Education and Training: A Comparative, Global Perspective.” The meeting was co-hosted by the Turkish National Police, Akdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey, and The State University of New York, Plattsburgh. The local organizers and hosts were Dr. Suleyman Isildar, Head of the Foreign Relations Department, Turkish National Police, Mr. Yazici, Director of Police of Antalya, Turan Gene, Director General of the Turkish National Police and Emin Arslan, Deputy General Director of Security. The Annual Meeting Organizer and Program Coordinator was Dr. Dilip K. Das, Professor, Plattsburgh State University of New York, Founder/President, International Police Executive Symposium. The Program Selection Committee included Dr. Michael Palmiotto, Wichita State University, Tonita Murray, Canadian Police College, and Dr. Warwick Sarre, University of South Australia.

The presenters at the sessions were from twenty-four countries, from Africa, Asia, Australia, Central America, Europe, the Middle East, and North America. The meeting participants were welcomed by Mr. Feyzullah Arslan, Deputy General Director of the Turkish National Police and Mr. Dokusoglo Dokuzoglu, Governor of Antalya. The sessions were held at the Antalya Police Directorate Meeting Hall and on the campus of Akdeniz University.

During the four-day meeting, the participants had many opportunities to interact with each other and to exchange information and ideas. They were housed and gathered for meals at the Police Guest House. They were feted at a reception at the Guest House and at a luncheon at Akdeniz University. Turkish National Nights at the Guest House included entertainment by folk dancers and singers. The participants took part in a sightseeing tour and a boat trip. Certificates of Participation were awarded at a farewell luncheon.

At the formal sessions, the speakers addressed the theme of the meeting, “Police Training and Education,” by describing the programs that had been developed to accomplish the defined mission and goals of their police organizations, viewed as service to the citizens in preventing, investigating and combating crime and maintaining public order (Hall, 2002a:i) within the framework of the laws and regulations of their countries.

Definitions of Education and Training

Distinctions were made between education and training. In general, education was viewed as developing the ability to conceptualize and expand the theoretical and analytic learning process, while training involved gaining the skills need to accomplish the immediate tasks and goals of police operations.

Many of the presenters expressed the opinion that education and training must be integrated, rather than viewed as separate entities. As Krishnamurthy (2002:3) stated:

A ‘total training’ vision for a profession like the police will have to be built to generate and mobilize teams of ‘knowledge workers’ as against preparing merely ‘skill workers’ (who may be suited for very routine and production line type of work situations). . . . Modern day managers believe that any organization has to have
a focus on developing knowledge workers who can be entrepreneurial, visionary and creative.

Education and training were therefore seen as intricately related. The amount of time devoted to the theoretical or technical aspects of the instruction depended on the philosophy of those in charge of designing the curriculum and the immediate needs of the police organizations. The changing nature of police work in the twenty-first century was viewed as having a strong influence on police training and education. As the presenter from Cyprus (Angelides, 2002: 4) observed:

In order to meet the demands of modern society, it appeared necessary to adjust the whole training process. The Police Training School, which offered rather theoretical and professional training, was upgraded to a Police Academy, with simultaneous extensive changes in the whole philosophy and curriculum content. The central
aim of the Academy is now to prepare the present and future leaders.

Countries that have had long histories of political stability and the resources needed to provide well-trained instructors and appropriate facilities have had opportunities to develop sophisticated police education and training systems that are continually being refined and updated to meet the needs of a changing society, focusing on technological advances and responses to social change, and ensuring human rights. Haythorne of the United Kingdom (2002:3) commented:

These changes have been encouraged by a more diverse and discriminating population, a clearly identified need for greater professionalism, the relentless search for best practice, and by more universally recognized and accepted influences on policing practice.

Other countries, particularly those that have recently established independence or have experienced traumatic internal conflicts, have been faced with the task of quickly recruiting, educating, and training many officers for immediate duty. These “needs driven” programs had to be designed and implemented quickly, with very limited
resources for equipment, training facilities, and highly qualified instructors. Discussing the situation in Russia, Gilinskiy (2002:7-8) noted:

Police as well as the police training and education system are the part and parcel of the society and they have common problems: economic, social, political, and morale. . . . a huge gap exists between contents of training and education, on the one hand, and the real police practice on the other hand (including inactivity, infringement of human rights, non-registration of crimes, corruption, torture, and so on.)

Changes in the political climate and pressures from the citizens and the media may influence the types of education and training provided. Arslan (2002:5) stated:

As societies are getting developed in civilization, freedom, education and in communication, the expectations from police organizations which are the organs of state increases. Especially the society is not only expecting the police to do its basic duties, but also expecting him to do these with tolerance and [in a] kindly way.

Since the police are symbols of the government’s authority over citizens and its attitudes toward them, particular care must be taken in the emerging democracies to train officers in communication skills, with a strong focus on human rights. As the speaker from Serbia (Kesetovic (2002: 15) noted:

There has been a complete lack or at least insufficient presence of certain topics in curriculums and plans, which are of great importancefor the police staff, particularly in the actual social conditions and endeavors of our country to approach (to harmonize) the standards of the European Unity. These are knowledge, skills, habits and values which refer to: human rights, police ethics, the ethics of management, police management, family violence, inter-ethnical relations, the police relations to the media, a peaceful solution to the conflicts in the family and community . . . the problem of organized crime, commercial terrorism, communication with the public, etc.

When Bahrain became an independent country, the police quickly realized that they must act to gain the citizens’ confidence and cooperation and developed police training to accomplish this goal. Al Ghaith (2002: 6-7) described the situation at that time:

This was not an easy task, as the old traditional concepts had housed in the citizens’ consciousness, which was not removable for a long period. . . . Thus the police aimed all its endeavor and faithfulness to gain the citizens’ trust, believed that making every efforts and all deeds [were] worth [this] for the sake of the great achievement. . . . It endeavored to raise its cultural standards for Officers and Other Ranks of the Police Force, concentrating on teaching the social and humanitarian sciences besides policing and public services studies in [a] humanitarian manner, to achieve more trust, support and cooperation from the citizens’ side.

The speaker from Northern Cyprus (Kebapci, 2002: 5) summed up the public’s expectations in regard to police education and training:

How should the police officers, whose duty is to serve the society, be educated to meet people’s expectancies? . . . These expectations are more or less the same all over the world. They are, a peaceful life in society, equality among people, objectiveness, respect, quality service. . . It is possible to add many more.

Selection of Appropriate Candidates for Police Education and Training

Every country represented at the meeting had established physical and personal criteria needed for individuals seeking to enter police work (age, height, lack of a criminal record, for example). In addition to meeting these qualifications, candidates in some countries (Thailand, for example) were required to compete for the available spots in police training schools by taking competitive examinations (Singhsilarak, 2002:1). In Japan, where candidates for police training must take a police officers’ employment examination nationwide, the success rate is approximately one of every 20.8 persons taking the test. Although high school graduates and university graduates take different examinations, 65% of the successful applicants in a given year (l995) were university graduates (National Police Agency of Japan, 1997:11).

Several speakers expressed the feeling that personal characteristics of integrity and strong moral values may be more important to the selection process than physical attributes, because of the unique nature of the police officer’s role. As Marenin (2002: 1) described it:

. . . The police must balance – continuously, every day, in every decision – legitimate yet conflicting values and rights: demands for effectiveness while still protecting individual rights, the maintenance of public order without
restricting liberty, the need to threaten or use force without deviating into abuse, being guided by law and professional expertise simultaneously.

Since the interactions with citizens are so varied, officers need to have certain personal abilities that qualify them for these tasks. As Krishnamurthy (2002: 5) commented:

All of the personnel who fulfill each one of these obligations have to be endowed with an ideal mix of the qualities of the head and heart. Mere ability in terms of successfully accomplishing those tasks in not enough as the method in which it is done and the manner in which the public comprehends the same . . . become equally relevant.

Vargas (2002b:110), when analyzing police behavior in Mexico, maintained that the behavior of the police is a reflection of the behavior of the larger society. He stated:

The police do not represent values or interests that are foreign to society. On the contrary, social values and interests acquire a concrete meaning through the police.

If this is true, then the mission of the police is to model, reflect and apply the highest level of ethical behavior practiced in that society, and selection of appropriate candidates for police and security forces is a key factor in realizing this mission.

It is very difficult to determine if a candidate has the strong moral character needed to be a good police officer, and it was also observed that no amount of training in ethics related to policing will change a person of low moral character. However, ethics-related education can reinforce proper values and help to reduce the effects of exposure to inappropriate behavior within the police culture. Rather that treating ethics as separate subject matter, the education and training programs in several countries incorporated discussion of ethics and human rights within the context of each subject offered in the police education and training courses. Walek (2002) reporting on the results of a survey on police corruption completed by Transparency International, noted that those responding to the survey did not generally mention training as an effective means to prevent police corruption, although they felt it might have some influence in reducing minor corruption. They suggested compulsory moral education be included as a segment of basic police training.

Marenin (2002:13) maintained that teaching “good police work” implies reinforcing students’ own internalized beliefs of what constitutes ethical behavior.
He stated:

Training should teach good police work rather than ethics or human rights or democratic policing. Instead, the definition of what is good police work needs to consistently include and stress democratic values. The values must be built into the practicalities of what constitutes good police work.

Types of Education and Training

Representatives from every country stated that they had basic training for new recruits, in-service training to upgrade officers’ skills, and advanced training for those who need to develop very specialized skills. For effective training to occur, the presenters were in agreement that detailed training plans with clearly defined and measurable objectives must be formulated, the most effective and knowledgeable instructors available should be utilized, and follow up evaluations should be undertaken to measure the success of the training. Alkabi (2002:2) observed:

One should understand training as a planned process: its conception objectives, techniques, types, how it is prepared, its subjects, evaluation and results. Planning of training includes theoretical, behavioral and also applied aspects that the organization should take into consideration, prepare for and put to execution.

Al Ghaith (2002:11) also stressed the importance of detailed planning in assessing training needs:

. . . non-availability of updated information and lack of knowledge compel some training centers to deliberately lessen the training program. The process of definition of training’s needs involves preparation of reports on the required training type, who has to attend training, and also required performance standards . . . to achieve for development of the performance and methods of the present and future job of the employees.

The types of courses offered and the time devoted to specific topics varied widely. In some cases, research was conducted to determine the types of training needed to best
accomplish the goals of the police organization. In Quebec, Canada, a “skills-based
approach” is used to decide the parameters of training and education. As Lussier (2002:21) described it:

The skills-based approach centers on a work situation analysis, an exhaustive inventory of occupational activities, the tools and techniques used, and the necessary knowledge, skills and attitudes. . . . All of this information is used in the human resources management continuum, that is, recruiting, selection, staffing, training, career advancement, professional development, and performance appraisal.

Some participants expressed the belief that the police training in their countries was progressive and appropriate, while others considered certain programs currently being offered to be substandard –inadequate, outdated, poorly instructed, or not related to reality. Munamara (2002: 8) described the situation in Uganda:

Because the bulk of the Uganda Police Force membership is under-trained and lacks skills on sophisticated equipment including computers, the Force is largely unable to detect and curb sophisticated crime such as computer fraud, money laundering and drug trafficking. Consequently, Uganda is increasingly becoming a haven and hub for sophisticate fraudsters.

The importance of higher education for police officers is still being debated. As Sarhan (2002:14) observed:

The proponents of higher education for law enforcement personnel maintain that the idea has become a cornerstone of the movement to professionalize the police in many parts of the world. Moreover, they argue that with higher education police officers are more likely to be mature, flexible, more aware of social and cultural problems, more tolerant for cultural diversity, and more likely to understand and recognize the need to work within the parameters set by the rule of law. Additionally, the advocates of this proposition say that the university degree provides police officers with the qualification to pursue another profession after retirement.

On the other hand, opponents argue that police work does not require university education and non-degree officers can perform their job as well as officers with university degrees. They also maintain that more emphasis should be on provision of hard skills of policing rather than on general knowledge of law and other disciplines.

Curriculum of Police Education and Training

The range of topics in the curriculum and the emphasis placed on specific subjects varied greatly from country to country. Garcia (2002: 1) noted that the design of curriculum of the Panamanian National Police Higher Education Center is based on “police needs and standards of excellence established by the higher education community.” Presenters from many other countries echoed this intent, emphasizing that the focus on needs or desires for curriculum excellence varied according to immediate and long-term goals.

Education and training for police included basic training, in-service or specialization training, and advanced education for officers assigned to specific areas of policing or for management personnel.

Typically, basic training included an overview of the types of information and skills a police officer would need to perform effectively. Subjects generally provided were research and investigations, knowledge of the criminal/penal codes, securing crime scenes and collection and preservation of evidence, driving skills and traffic patrol tactics, appropriate use of force, crisis intervention, human relations, crowd control, physical fitness, training in defensive tactics such as judo, or technical training in the use of firearms, fingerprinting, use of radar, interviewing, interrogation, and report writing.

The curriculum of the basic training courses in several countries was similar to that described by Chistyakova (2002:1) as being used in Ukraine:

Basic training (6 months) . . . courses provide basic knowledge in the theory of law, criminal law and forensic science, crime detection, and training to develop physical skills necessary for work in the police (shooting, driving, military and physical training, drill).

In Cyprus, the training period for recruits combines classroom lectures with on-the-job training. Subjects added to the basic training program when its length was extended included psychology, sociology, public relations, criminology, and foreign languages (Angelides, 2002:4).

Another important aspect of police training is in-service training and retraining of currently employed officers to either enhance the basic knowledge and skill development they received during basic training or to introduce new subject areas and topics that must be pursued because of new social and legal developments related to policing matters (new laws related to police use of firearms, conducting searches or interrogations, or new techniques for searching for abducted children, for example). Training related to new developments in computer-assisted technology was another important concern.

In Turkey, courses on public relations, police ethics, human rights, and conflict and stress management are the core courses in all of the in-service training programs. (Arslan, 2002: 18). In some instances, police training to deal with very specific types of citizen problems may not be included in the curriculum or may be inadequate. For example, in Wakim’s (2002:8-9) study of the reactions of police in New South Wales to domestic violence situations, only 31% of the 200 officers in her survey felt that their training had adequately prepared them for this work, and 24% indicated that they had not received or could not recall receiving training in this area.

In addition to in-service training, certain officers are selected for or eligible to apply to receive advanced or specialized training or education. The eligibility and choice of officers to pursue this advanced education was determined predominantly by the specific positions in the police organization that they held or aspired to hold in the future. Senior officers filling supervisory or administrative positions might be given advanced training or education in leadership and management, public relations, or human rights.

Hall (2002a:24) listed eight management and leadership development programs designed for specific levels of management in the South African Police. These included:

Basic Management Programme (learning programme
for entry level supervisors)
Operational Management Programme
Middle Management Programme
Leadership Development Programme (Directors and
higher)
Functional Skills for Officers (Officers course)
Functional Skills for Station Commissioners
Detective Commander’s Course
JUPMET Station Management Programme

Those in specialized crime control units might receive advanced training in cybercrime, narcotics, juvenile crime, arson investigations, forgery, organized crime, vice-related or violent crime. For others, advanced training might be technical, related to advanced photography, computer skills, or new types of equipment for traffic control. The topics covered in the advanced training often were expansions of the more general knowledge provided in earlier courses.

In Qatar, specialized training included (Alkabi,2002:15-17):

Orientation course for the employees of prisons
Fighting drugs course
Crime scene course
Rescue police course
Vehicles theft investigation course
Public relations and the art of dealing with the public
Criminal investigation course
Wire and wireless communication
Fighting forgery and falsification
Search, inquiry and surveillance
Traffic investigation
Traffic patrols
Juvenile police
Preparation of trainers and imprints division
Protection and security of policewomen

Evaluation of the effectiveness of police training and education and subsequent curriculum revision was regarded as very important. In Croatia, the Department of Professional Improvement and Specialization within the Croatian Police Academy has responsibility for analyzing the educational needs of the police and the conditions for realization of these needs, creating and developing an annual education plan, and preparing organizational models of police education. It conducts annual testing of police officers in the fields of professional knowledge, physical conditions, self-defense skills, and target practice. The results are included in the annual grade of each police officer and are the basis for an annual quantitative and qualitative analysis of the police education being conducted (Veic and Mraovic, 2002:6-7).

The Relationship Between Political/Administrative Leadership and the Quality of Police Training

Several of the speakers mentioned that the extent and quality of police training are influenced by government officials and the top administrators within the police agency. Political leaders who have a vision for their countries in the twenty-first century and have some insight into the types of changes that must be made to adapt their police forces to the demands of a global society will seek to provide the resources needed to accomplish this, and also appoint persons to the top administrative positions of the police agencies who are qualified to assure that appropriate high-quality police training is established.

In the Republic of South Africa, the National Commissioner of the Police Service has the ultimate responsibility for the education, training, and development, but the Divisional Commissioner for Education, Training, and Development must see to it that the training of the enormous number of South African Police personnel (more than 120,000 employees in 2002) adheres to current legislation and the internal demands of the organization (Hall, 2002a: i).

In Uganda, Munanura (2002:8) reported that the police administrators were committed to improving the quality of the police force.

The renewed political commitment and the new leadership within the Uganda Police force present a fresh promise for re-birth of the Force. The new inspector general’s . . . priorities are:
1. Improvement of welfare for police officers,
2. Ensuring all officers acquire necessary skills to perform
their duties. This will be achieved through training.

In Mexico, where the organization and behavior of the police is strongly influenced by the military model, there is much distrust and fear of the police. Vargas (2002:5) noted that, “people in some rural areas use violence to keep police out from their communities and in others, people have created their own police body.” In 1995, fewer than one police officer out of 100 had a senior high school education (Vargas, 2002: 8), and the Ministry of the Interior reported that 80% of the police training centers had outdated programs. When a Federal Preventive Police was created in 1998, the training emphasis was on military style control and discipline. Vargas (2002:14) observed that:

Skills of officers in charge of law enforcement in advanced democratic systems, such as negotiation, dispute solving and the exercise of [their] own criteria seems to be out from the objectives of this police formation. Police, military or ex-military officers, who do not have a tendency to involve academic institutions, usually perform the administrative control of the police formation centers.

In certain countries, legislation mandates that a specific portion of the funds allocated for police agencies be spent on training, while in other countries where the political leadership does not view the performance of the police as crucial to the overall welfare of the country, police training has a low priority and is inadequately funded.

Who Should Be Educated and Trained?

After basic training of officers has been completed, specialized training occurs according to the needs of the police organization and the interests of the officers.

In Poland, training centers were set up with specific missions. These include a center to prepare staff to perform duties related to protection of citizens’ security and maintenance of public safety and order, a center for training traffic police, dog handlers, police dogs, water police and bomb disposal experts, a Main Center of Training Methodology, which prepared syllabi for the police schools, an International Specialized Police Training Center for its own officers and officers from other countries, an Institute of Police Managerial Staff Training and Development, and Project “Young,” which emphasizes developing foreign language skills, studying the legal systems, law enforcement organizational structures, and administration of justice of other European Union nations. (Plywaczewski, 2002:3-8). In Turkey, training topics were presented at different levels and in various training venues. For example, training in road safety issues was provided in the Police Schools (community college level), at the Police Academy, through in-service training, and at the Master’s and Ph.D. levels at universities (Isildar, 2002: 5-7).

The general opinion was that education and training must continue at all levels throughout the officers’ careers. This is particularly true for in-service training. As Ozgiler (2002:5)observed:

The effectiveness of today’s police agencies depends not only on their street level personnel’s knowledge, skills, and abilities, but also on the managerial qualities. . . . In order for police managers to survive in a dynamic, rapidly changing society, they must be continually updated on the latest techniques and developments

Al Ghaith et al.(2002: 16) noted that a police culture based on recognition and respect for human rights cannot be imposed on officers by rules and regulations alone, but must come from within. For this to be accomplished,

. . . people at the lowest levels of management must be convinced, willing and committed. Training and education is the most important tool and must strive to create reliability, punctuality, and professionalism.

Education and training becomes even more important for those in the upper levels of police management. As Dinse and Sheehen (1998:19) expressed the belief that:

Today’s police leaders must be well educated so they can wield the challenging concepts and strategies of community policing, empowerment, problem solving, strategic planning, and joint decision making.

A good example of such training was given by the speaker from Thailand (Singhsilarak, 2002:5-6). He reported that the Institute of Police Administration provides training courses for senior command, superintendent, inspector, and general staff as pre-promotional training for those assuming new positions. In Japan, the National Police Academy provides training for those being promoted to chief of a station or division director. The Highest Training Institute for Investigation Leaders of the Academy trains those with the rank of police inspector or above in leadership, management, and high professional criminal investigation technology and also provides foreign language training for Japanese police officers (National Police Agency of Japan, 1997: 13)..

It was mentioned that high-level administrators are often exempted from continued education and training in administration, when, in fact, the progress of the department may depend on education of these persons. As Ozguler (2002a: 7) commented:

Reality finds that for policing to improve, its administration, organization, and management must improve. The answer lies in the continued improvement of internal police administration. The best way of assuring this is renewal of experienced and well-prepared supervisors and administrators to provide them a framework where they can learn more about the changing world, to realize their own capabilities and to enhance them.

The Relationship Between Police Academy and University Education

In some countries, police officers can receive all of their training and advanced degrees, including the Ph.D., at a police university. In other countries, academic degrees can only be obtained in a regular university system. The distinction between the two is complicated. Police academies are regulated by the Ministry of the Interior, while universities are regulated by the Minister of Education or by an accreditation body.

Countries with a national police force organized along the line of the military tend to educate their officers in institutions staffed and controlled by the police rather than in colleges and universities. For example, in Paraguay the Police Officers’ School utilizes a four year curriculum that prepares officers as “order and security officers,” who have the functions of public service and community crime control, and “intendancy officers,” who handle the financial administration of the police organization. Other specializations are available, including preparation for careers as instructors or investigators, experts or lawyers in criminalistics, special police operations, mounted police, police intelligence, drugs and narcotic control, and anti-terrorism (Insfran, 2002: 2-3).

The various police education and training colleges in the United Arab Emirates have a strict military environment. The degree programs available include a high diploma in international law, a high diploma in private law, a two year master’s degree program in law, four year programs for a bachelor of law degree or a bachelor in police science, a two year program for a diploma in law enforcement, a one year program leading to a diploma in law enforcement for persons who are already university graduates, a one year certificate in police duties for constables (Sarhan, 2002: 3-8)..

In other countries, those seeking to become commissioned officers may pursue four-year degree programs at police academies or enter the police with degrees from domestic educational institutions after they receive some additional training. In Thailand, graduates of domestic institutions with degrees in law or political science can become commissioned officers after completing a six-month police officer training course, and persons with degrees in accounting and commerce may enter the police after receiving a required score on competitive examinations (Singhsilarak, 2002: 2)

In Russia, there is a close connection between police training and university education. Gilinskiy (2002:5) reported that many professors and teachers from civil universities also teach at the police universities, and many professors and teachers whose major positions are at police universities also teach at civil universities. The majority of professors and lecturers at police universities and academies have special police ranks and are called “certified staff,” while the teachers from civil universities who also teach at the police universities have no special police rank and are termed “civilian staff.”

In the Czech Republic, the Police Academy in Prague, which provides university level education for police officers, is a state educational institution and part of the general system of educational institutions of higher studies. The students receive university credit. After graduation, the students can seek employment with the police, in non-state security services, or in such fields as public administration, industry, or security management (Bartosova, 2002:1-2).

Effects of Higher Education on Police Officers’ Careers

In certain countries, obtaining academic degrees is automatically rewarded by increases in pay and rank or may be directly related to career advancement. In the Ukraine, higher education leads to better pay for several reasons. It is one of the main factors contributing to promotion, and those with higher education have opportunities to occupy higher and better-paid positions. Having a degree or title also entitles officers to extra wages in the form of bonuses (Chistyakova, 2002:4). In Kenya, a university graduate would normally get a higher salary than a non-graduate. Also, university graduates are given priority in promotions. After an officer’s appointment has been confirmed and he/she has passed a basic law examination, graduates are taken for a special promotion course to the rank of Inspector (Warsame, 2002:l3).

In Taiwan, the Reinvention of Police Organization Plan of 2001 recommended that all the rank and file officers must get the bachelor degree to become real officers. Officers who currently have baccalaureate degrees are encouraged to pursue graduate study. Those who are involved in these educational pursuits can get subsidies from the Organization and also get credits for promotion (Chen, 2002:2).

In some countries, opportunities exist for persons who have developed expertise in non-policing disciplines to obtain entry at a higher rank than that given after basic training. In Austria, for example, police officers who have studied law at universities may be employed by the police as legal experts and receive higher pay (Edelbacher, 2002: 6). In the United States, which has a fragmented policing system in which the almost 2,000 independent federal, state, and local police organizations establish their own training curricula, the content and quality of basic training varies tremendously. Federal law enforcement agencies and each state legislature establish the minimum basic training standards that must be met to qualify for a policing position, but the actual training can be provided by a training academy administered by the police agency, by a private training facility, by a state-wide police training academy or occasionally by a local college or university that has established a program that combines basis training with academic credit that could lead to a higher education degree (Kratcoski, 2002:2). Marenin (2002) noted that, although police training and university educational programs in criminal justice, police administration or law are totally separate entities, police agencies may contract with universities to provide some specialized training. In addition, such federal training policing training facilities such as the FBI Training Academy and the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center will provide highly specialized training to a limited number of state and municipal police officers. For some officers in the U.S. and other countries, their participation in higher education programs is motivated by a desire for personal development and improvement rather than career advancement, since no formal provision exists that higher education achievements will be rewarded. This is also true in the United Kingdom. As Haythorne (2002:15) observed:

In order to enhance practical competencies, police officers are encouraged to seriously consider the merits of academic achievement, the development of a disciplined, enquiring mind, and the personal satisfaction and fulfillment that higher education brings. Rates of remuneration are standardized across the Service, and no provision exists for rewarding officers who attain higher academic qualifications.

In other countries, pursuit of academic degrees is not actively encouraged, particularly when the top administrators are not convinced that higher education is related to more effective police work.

International Cooperation

International cooperation to promote greater police professionalism and exchanges of information related to technological and procedural innovations has become commonplace. A striking example is the advancement made in the promotion of human rights in police-citizen interactions. Krishnamurthy (2002:20)
described what has occurred in India:

Tremendous strides have been made by agencies and organizations like the Human Rights Unit of the Commonwealth Secretariat; the UNICEF; Human Rights Organization of the UNO . . . to evolve comprehensive plans for sensitization of various professionals like the police, the magistrates and the medical practitioners in spreading the correct and legal steps in the promotion of Human Rights of persons in various facets of the penal processes. All such efforts have helped in advancing the cause of Human Rights in consonance with the Human Rights Charter proclaimed some decades ago.

All speakers mentioned several ways that their police agencies were involved with other countries, either in receiving assistance in developing training models or in providing assistance with training. Several countries sent police officers abroad to obtain higher academic degrees. In 1999, Turkey began sending officers abroad for their graduate studies to prepare them to serve as lecturers and researchers. By summer 2002, twenty-three officers had finished their master’s degrees in the U.S.A. and France and forty-seven officers were studying for their master’s and doctoral degrees in Germany, France, and the USA (Arslan, 2002: 22).

In the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, a Department of International Cooperation was set up to support academic and technical cooperation between the Naif Arab Academy for Security Sciences and other sources of police expertise, through contacts and exchanges with other Arab States, United Nations agencies, international scientific and professional associations, and universities and training institutes in the USA, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Germany, Australia, China, Japan, Belgium, and the Czech Republic (Shama, 2002:2-7).

In the 1990s, Austria, the Czech Republic, German, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland developed a cooperative venture called the Middle European Police Academy. In this Academy, youth leaders of law enforcement agencies are educated in a two or three months course (Edelbacher, 2002:7).

A potential problem is that implementation of a training model designed for one country may be difficult in another country that has a quite different culture, political system, and ethical traditions. Modification of the training program to adopt it to the specific setting can reduce this concern. In a global society, every speaker recognized the need for police to share research findings on effective and appropriate education and training and technological expertise. The need to constantly assess the effectiveness and relevance of training was emphasized. This can be accomplished through feedback from those being trained, internal observation and auditing, and assessment of the quality of work of those who have been trained.

Police Training and Education In A Changing World

The great increase in incidents of terrorism, suicide bombings and attacks on civilians in public places, internal civil disturbances, and transnational criminal activities has increased the importance of police training and education for quick response and effective action when such events occur and also for effective intelligence gathering and infiltration of suspected terrorist and/or subversive groups to deter or reduce the possibilities of harm to the general public.

In a reactive mode, police may require more training in crowd management in emergency, life-threatening situations, and in handling and responding to large-scale medical emergencies, including fast care and transportation of injured persons. As Dnistrianskyj, 2002:1) noted:

The traditional battlefield is increasingly shifting to urban areas with police and security forces involved in the conduct of hostilities and civilians are no longer spared.

In a preventive mode, police training to recognize suspicious persons or activity and to quickly clear citizens from areas where there is a threat of potential disaster is highly important. In this regard, profiling can be controversial, and there is always the threat of violations of human rights. The International Committee of the Red Cross provides training and advisory activities for police and security forces when they are operating in situations that fall within the International Committee of the Red Cross’ mandate to pursue the objective of creating and expanding nations’ capacities to educate and train police and security officials in international humanitarian law and human rights Dnistrianskyj, 2002:4). Closely related to this is the need to train officers to deal with the stress and psychological reactions that accompany their involvement in events that have involved terrible injuries, loss of life, and trauma for the victims.

Another strong challenge identified by the meeting participants was increased education for officers in technological related to cybercrime and organized criminal activity on an international level.

Several speakers identified areas where they felt current approaches to police training and education were inadequate. Ozguler (2002 b.: 25-26), who completed a study on the most effective ways to train police managers, concluded that:

Today’s rising value is the concept of community-oriented policing.. . . The police managers at all levels must be well prepared for their roles. . . .

Police management training must be looked on as not simply a cost but rather as an investment in an organization’s long-term viability and success in serving the needs of citizens. . . .

Management training must be institutionalized for continuingimprovement. With institutionalization, training can be reinforced with consultancy, research, lectures, seminars and publications. . . .

Managers’ competence and the quality of service delivery can be improved by altering the timing, content, and structure of training courses. . . .

Traditional classroom based training and traditional lectures do notproduce expected outcomes. . . . Formal classroom learning must be combined with direct experience and the opportunity to learn by observing others. Role-playing, in-basket exercises comprised of conducting meetings, issuing orders, planning events, attending to
routine administrative matters and dealing with a variety of personnel problems must be included. . . .

An evaluation strategy must be an integral part of the training structure.

For in-service training of officers in rural or isolated areas, where the police force is spread thinly and the officers are not likely to be available for conventional in-service training, Kroshnamurthy (2002:9) advocated “distance training.” He envisioned situations in which short training films or computer programs would be available at the police stations in these areas, and an obligatory learning schedule could be set up. The topics could be professional procedures (arrest, interrogation, or traffic management), or such topics as human rights awareness, treatment of people, and aspects of democratic behavior.

In Serbia, a system termed “modern education” uses many technological innovations. Kesetovic (2002:6) described the program in this way:

The system of “Modern education” provides the production of multimedia educational materials (electronic presentation, electronic text-books, educational films, photographs, animation, audio records) which is a technological basis for the modernization of classical teaching. . . as well as individual learning and students’
training. The second phase of the “Modern education” . . . provides the inclusion of virtual reality in the teaching process, for the distribution education, as well as for the distance learning, which will significantly reduce the costs of education.

Conclusions

In today’s changing world, police organizations must constantly adapt the training and education officers receive to address new demands and expectations from their government and the citizens of their countries. In addition to preparing officers to protect citizens from problems that originate within their own countries, the police must plan for action to counteract and respond to threats from outside their borders posed by terrorism and organized crime. To do this, the police must be trained in the highly sophisticated investigation, intelligence, crisis management, and communication techniques. International cooperative education ventures are crucial to address these needs. Also, international educational exchanges must educate officers from every nation to promote universal human rights, according to the rule of law.

Police education and training must make students aware of the “global environment of the information world without borders.” (Hall, 2002b:35) We can expect that there will be ever-continuing changes in the way society reacts to and is shaped by new information and technology. Police officers must be able to adapt to these changes. They will be required to manage complicated information technology systems, but still seek to safeguard the privacy and civil rights of individuals.

It is apparent that training alone will not prepare officers for the critical thinking and decision making of the future. Higher education appears to be the key to effective policing in the 21st century. The police office of the future must have the initiative, knowledge and vision to deal with and solve problems by creative thinking, have the ability to network with available specialists and resources on a world-wide scale when the situation requires this, and have a career-long commitment to enhancement of his/her policing skills through training and education.

In nations that have strong, moral political leaders who have developed a vision of the role of policing in the 21st century, it is likely that police education and training will be appropriately directed to meet these challenges. Police education and training was seen by the meeting participants as a life-long process, either formally required and
conducted or undertaken by the officers themselves to increase their professionalism and effectiveness.

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