The International Police Executive Symposium (IPES) brings police researchers and practitioners together to facilitate cross-cultural, international and interdisciplinary exchanges for the enrichment of the policing profession. It encourages discussions and writing on challenging topics of contemporary importance through an array of initiatives including conferences and publications.

Executive Summaries

2006 Turkey Meeting Summary

THIRTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING OF
THE INTERNATIONAL POLICE EXECUTIVE SYMPOSIUM

LOCAL LINKAGES to GLOBAL SECURITY and CRIME: THINKING LOCALLY and ACTING GLOBALLY

Ayvalik, Turkey
May 26-30, 2006

Serhat Demir, Julia Davidson and Dilip Das

Introduction

The Thirteenth Annual Meeting of the International Police Executive Symposium was held at the Police Guesthouse of the Ayvalik Police Department in Balikesir, Turkey from May 26 through May 30, 2006, sponsored by the Turkish National Police and hosted by Governor Gokhan Aydiner, the General Director of the Turkish National Police. The theme of the meeting was “Local Linkages to Global Security and Crime: Thinking Locally and Acting Globally.” The Meeting Organizer was Dr. Dilip Das, Founder/President of the International Police Executive Symposium.

During the symposium, police practitioners, government officials and representatives of non-government organizations, academics, and researchers from many countries, from the continents of Africa, Asia, Australia, Europe, the Middle East, North America, and South America made presentations at the sessions and took part in formal and informal discussions. Approximately 150 persons were in attendance as participants or observers.

Unlike many other professional conferences, IPES gatherings emphasize not only formal transfer of knowledge, but also informal communications and information sharing. These in person interactions will no doubt continue long after the end of the meeting. This continuation of contacts among the participants will ensure a constant exchange of information among the participants and hopefully will create networks whereby members share knowledge and information that has practical implications. The five day symposium provided many opportunities for the participants to interact with each other and exchange ideas and information in both formal and informal settings. The delegates were housed in the beautiful surroundings of the Police Guesthouse and facilities included a private beach and a pool. Meals and tours to the historical and cultural sites of Ayvalik and the surrounding area were arranged for participants, who also had the opportunity to visit Ephesus and Mary’s House. For many of the participants, this opportunity to visit this holy site was a once in a life time experience.

In short, the Symposium provided opportunities for participants from countries throughout the world to share with others their cultures, value systems knowledge and to exchange ideas about policing practice and policy. The goal of the Symposium, to align and tune and integrate local practices with global aspirations by looking at the array of problems, various concerns and issues that are faced daily by the respective communities of the participants within the context of the broader global implications and solutions to these problems was achieved. The exchange of local ideas and transformation of those ideas into global practices were the two main contributions of this meeting to the law enforcement community.

The main theme of the meeting was structured to allow participants to make a presentation on a very wide variety of subjects and issues. The participants brought forth important local issues that have global aspects and general applicability to other jurisdictions in other parts of the world. This resulted in presentations that were clustered under very important and seemingly distinctive but complementary sessions. In the first session the core subject was the shifting directions of policing. In the second session the importance of scientific support on police daily work and specifically the role of forensics were discussed. The third session focused on protecting and responding to the needs of the vulnerable (with particular attention to children). The use of advanced technology in the criminal victimization process was considered in several of the presentations. The main subject of the fourth session was criminal intelligence and police cooperation policies and strategies in tackling organized crime. Other sessions included presentations on knowledge management, the standards of ethics, measuring and shifting police practices/culture, promotion of the rule of law and human rights, and looking to the future.

Post 9/11: Shifting Directions of Policing
There are many milestones in policing like the introduction of proactive patrolling, community policing and crime mapping for example. Each of these milestones introduces a distinct era of policing. Successes in crime reduction over time are generally associated with these policing approaches. The successful introduction of a new policing tactic or management style in one country draws the attention of the international policing community and eventually other countries are implementing the new management model or policing tactic. While the country where the strategy emerged might change the strategy, the effects of the approach will continue in other countries. That is what occurred, according to Albrecht (2006), with community policing in the United States. With the support of the federal government many American police agencies emphasized community policing within their jurisdiction. The still ongoing crime reduction trend which is widely thought to be due to community policing strategies in the United States has naturally caught the attention of countries in Europe, where crime rates have increased and the was a need to find new ways to deal with the increase in crime. The idea was that if this strategy works in one western democracy it should work in another. In Scandinavia and other nations, e.g., Israel and the United Kingdom, national police administrations have begun to implement community policing as a promising initiative to fight crime in the new millennium. In the United States, on the other hand, the contemporary need for counter-terrorism measures and the emphasis on domestic security along with the ready availability of federal grants to undertake these new responsibilities has brought community policing to the brink of extinction.

Community policing can prove to be too idealistic. It is crucial to analyze the success of this strategy in the United States and its latest evolution in order to infer what might happen globally in other countries where this strategy is employed, being mindful of the fact that the success of such initiatives when adopted by other countries, is partly dependent upon factors such as: the social structure; the prevailing culture and the specific policing culture. One very important concept that emerged out of community policing and became a strategy itself is problem-solving approach. This approach in time evolved into the crime analysis/proactive strategic response model. The model was promising as was seen in the COMPSTAT practices of New York City. Albrecht (2006) argues that community policing is facing extinction in its purist form both in the United States and internationally, but the idea is still being promoted by law enforcement executives as a means to advocate enhanced police-community cooperation and partnership. Computer analysis and proactive strategic deployment appear to be the more beneficial forms of problem-oriented policing and crime fighting.

In terms of local experiences in the field of crime prevention and reduction and the contribution of community policing towards these goals, Mesko, Maver and Dvorsek (2006) provide insights from Slovenia as to what should be done in order to combine the efforts of local institutions, agencies and communities towards this common goal. According to Mesko et al. (2006), the role of local administrations, whether municipalities or city administrations should be clearly defined in the field of crime prevention and local safety. Also a national crime prevention program incorporating the efforts of local and national governmental (state) institutions, NGOs and civil society initiatives should be adopted however hard this might prove. Based on their observations Mesko et al. (2006) remark that for joint efforts in crime prevention it is “necessary to learn from others’ experiences”. Referring to the local safety councils’ function, Mesko et al. (2006) emphasize that decisions taken should not be reached only on the basis of public opinion (e.g. angry and outraged victims of crime) but have to be based on profound studies of problems to be solved.

The importance of cooperation with the local community was stressed by other participants in other contexts as well. For instance in his study on the strategy of Taiwan police in dealing with organized crime, Chang (2006) suggests that the police should try to integrate with the community they work for and mobilize the general public to serve themselves. He further argues that policing strategies should change towards incorporation of the concept of community policing into feasible measures and programs that will make the best use of the immense resources of the people. An interactive mechanism between the police and the community should be forged to further enhance the outcome of the combined local dynamics. Maintaining social order is not solely the responsibility of the police, it takes the whole government to work as a team in fighting the root causes of the problem. Coordination and cooperation among all relevant agencies of the government and the members of the community is the key to success in winning the war on crime (Chang, 2006). The need of support from the government and inter-organizational cooperation was emphasized by many of the speakers at the conference. Simonović (2006) argued that the concept of a safe community through community policing activities can be made possible by functioning local security councils made up of local relevant forces. Within the context of a community policing project, Simonović (2006) demonstrated the importance of cooperation between police, local government, local institutions and citizen associations and organizations. The main benefits from such collaboration are; increased work satisfaction in police officers participating in community policing activities, increased satisfaction with the police, and significant reductions in offences and crimes.

Singh & van Zyl (2006) touched on an important issue in policing within the local context of South Africa’s drug trafficking problem. Specialization in policing can be a very frustrating issue. While there are some who argue that police should be able to handle many issues, there are also others who argue for specialized police with particular expertise. One of the main reasons of poor handling of drug trafficking in South Africa according to the officers interviewed by Singh & van Zyl (2006) is the dismantling of the specialized narcotics unit and employment of ordinary police officers for narcotics investigations.

Scientific Support: The Role of Forensics
With the advancement of technology the way we police has also changed dramatically. Policing, in recent years, has become more democratic, more scientifically supported and more technology oriented. Pavlich (2006) identifies and differentiates two distinct logics of forensics. The first approach is anthropometry which is reactive in nature. In anthropometry or criminalistics individuals are identified and separated from the general population and each incident is evaluated within its context. On the other hand, the second approach, criminal anthropology or criminology, is predictive in nature and aims to generate specific information drawn from individuals that can lead to broad generalizations.

Green (2006) demonstrates how forensics can be utilized in order to solve cold cases within the example of Operation Advance, a program initiated by the Home Office in the UK. Focusing on cold rape cases, advanced scientific techniques were employed to re-analyze the forensic evidence in order to produce usable DNA samples that could be interrogated against the National DNA Database (NDNAD). The program resulted in 19 convictions, 3 life sentences and 150 years in non-life sentences.

Following up on Green’s remarks, Mathew (2006) noted that the use of scientific support within police organizations is not highly regarded due to insufficient awareness of the contribution of forensic science to police investigations. Management of offices and officers responsible for investigation of the crime scene should be improved and uniformity in investigations should be promoted.

Protecting and Responding to the Vulnerable
The changing nature of crime, with the exploitation of information technologies, makes it harder for law enforcement to detect and solve crimes committed against the vulnerable via the Internet. The Internet provides easy access, anonymity and affordability which makes it convenient for sex offenders (Davidson & Martellozzo, 2006). Also easy access to others who share a sexual interest in children creates new ‘pathways’ and opportunities to abuse. The internet provides a supportive, global context in which the child abuser is not a lone figure, but part of a larger community that shares the same interests. The Internet can prove to be very hard to police especially when the key evidence needed to solve a case is located within another jurisdiction.

While effective investigation of such offenses is important for deterrence, a proactive approach; that is protecting children before they become victims is more important. One of the strategies towards this end is raising awareness through educational programs involving children, the police and parents. Due to its transnational character thinking and acting both locally and globally in dealing with sexual abuse crimes is necessary. Policing the internet, however hard it might be, educating children about safety strategies in school and raising overall awareness in the society are the basic strategies that are offered by the authors.

Shimko (2006) argued for creating a community of practice that can see the world from the eyes of the children and take action appropriately and accordingly. In order to realize those goals the government, non-government and the private sector should come together in the best interests of the child. However, these combined efforts should not only be at local or national level but also at international level within a systemic integration strategy.

Criminal Intelligence and Police Cooperation Policies and Strategies: Tackling Organized Crime
All nations, peoples, areas, and resources of the globe are getting closer, increasingly connecting together and becoming interlocked due to the effect of the process of globalization, which made the national borders more porous and vulnerable to infiltration and manipulation. Transnational crime in the various forms of drug trafficking, small and light arms smuggling, piracy, cyber crime, people smuggling, human trafficking, money–laundering, fraud, and terrorism, is clearly expanding and growing. There has always been a border crossing, spillover aspect of crime; however crimes have never before than in the last decades been a big transnational problem requiring effective cooperation of at least two jurisdictions.

While gathering criminal information and sharing the information with other local or international agencies is crucial in investigation of transnational crimes, more emphasis should be placed on the importance of intelligence analysis and crime profiling. In order to effectively fight transnational crimes, the intelligence function of the police has to be further developed by acquisition of appropriate technical equipments in support of forensic identification and police operations; the police also need to focus on intelligence training programs (Chang, 2006).

Policies and Strategies: Tackling Organized Crime
Like transnational crimes, the strategy in fighting organized crimes should also be responsive to the challenges and be flexible to adjust to changing local and international dynamics. The patterns of organized crimes changes and adapts, which requires the police to make necessary adjustments. However, the police alone are highly incapable of tackling organized crime due to the complicated nature and networks of this particular crime. In addition to the adjustments within police services, interagency task forces that enhance cooperation among police forces and integrate the resources of many organizations are necessary to combat this problem. The support of government in terms of both providing necessary resources and making appropriate legislations is also a crucial element in fighting organized crime.

In Canada, for instance, recent changes in the Act to Facilitate Combating the Laundering of Proceeds of Crime are a good step towards effective fight with organized crime on paper. Beare (2006) lists some of those important changes; the required numbers of members in the criminal organizations was reduced from 5 to 3, the notion of 'on-going' pattern of criminality of the criminal organization was removed, the number of included offences was increased to now include most indictable offences, the powers of law enforcement to forfeit the proceeds of crime were broadened and participating, committing, and instructing an offence for a criminal organization are recognized as new types of organized crime.

Taiwan is yet another country that is an example of how a strategically located democracy with a market economy and a bureaucratically structured government with an open society that has been working in managing the threats of transnational crime. Chang (2006) examines the major efforts, executed by the police and other related authorities that have been put in practice to prevent, pursuit and investigate transnational criminal activities, including reforms in police organization and government structure, changes in policing and crime prevention strategy, and reinforcements in criminal intelligence coordination and cooperation with the relevant police & security forces home and abroad. Taiwan’s police authority has realigned its forces deployment and resources allocation, stressing more on the imperative role of criminal intelligence and the methods of intelligence collection and analysis. As the intelligence-led policing advocates, local police became more active in working with local government in establishing intelligence network in support of community policing. Campaigns to promote public awareness in and support to combating transnational crime have also been carried out across the society. As to international police cooperation, despite the lack of diplomatic ties with almost all major nations, Taiwan has been quite successful in forging working relations or informal channels of communication and police cooperation with its neighboring countries. The key areas determining the success of Taiwan in their fight against organized crime according to Chang (2006) are political will and policy determination, legislation and authorization, capacity building and force preparation, organizational realignment and interagency coordination, intelligence-led policing and intelligence-law enforcement coordination, international judicial assistance and cross-strait police cooperation, public awareness campaign and popular support, and border security and homeland security operation.

Knowledge Management: Capturing, Sharing and Sustaining
To assure that those in policing obtain knowledge that has utility and will be effective in crime prevention and law enforcement, the right type of questions must be asked in order to obtain the desired knowledge. Asking the right questions, however, can prove difficult. Dean, Fahsing, Glomseth, & Gottschalk (2006) try to ask the right questions by suggesting two research propositions in the domain of police investigations and two research propositions in the domain of knowledge managements systems and technology in order to develop quality research. The first proposition in the domain of police investigations relates to the management of an investigation with the help of knowledge management. The proposition asserts that knowledge management systems are more important in ‘problem solving’ than in other primary activities of police investigations. Beginning from the stage of problem acquisition towards finding alternative solutions, choosing a solution, implementing the solutions and finally to the stage of evaluation and feedback, knowledge management creates a value for the organization (Dean et al., 2006). The second proposition asserts that knowledge management systems are more important in the ‘thinking styles’ of Method and Skill than in those of Challenge and Risk. The first proposition in the domain of knowledge management is that police investigation success is positively related to ‘higher stages’ of knowledge management technology and the second is that police investigation success is positively related to the extent of access to strategic knowledge resources.

Knowledge Management Systems in Police Investigations: Towards a Research Agenda
The amount of information generated in modern societies is dramatically increasing. However, the availability of huge amounts of information does not mean that this information is logically structured and understandable (Kairiss, 2006). Paper technology has almost become obsolete, since this technology in the information era incapable of selecting and structuring the useful information out of huge amounts of information that is available. Such is the case for information generated or obtained by the police. The solution to provided manageable and useful information lies in the development of computerized information systems, in that these systems help to simplify and logically structure any available information, provide possibilities for data collection, storage, processing and immediate dissemination to any number of users over great distances, allow to make searches of information, and provide possibilities for data integration and analysis (Kairiss, 2006). There are two kinds of success indicators for an effective information system; quantitative – the number of law violations prevented or disclosed by the use of system – the direct efficiency and qualitative – factors affecting the system’s ability to help in protection of rights and the prevention/combating of crime – the indirect efficiency. The amount of data collected by police is tremendous and the effective balance between the needs of law enforcement and the amount of data to be collected has not been found yet (Kairiss, 2006). One problem with use of information is the fact that information systems are not widely and effectively used by the officers carrying out operative activities; hence there is a lack of analytical functionality in the information systems (Kairiss, 2006). Therefore, there is a strong need in the filed for exchange of experience regarding; analytical functionality (e.g., GIS solutions, solutions of link analysis etc.) of systems, best practices regarding the methodological aspects of criminal statistics and data publication and availability to the society (Kairiss, 2006).

Stressing the importance of patrol officers for solving crimes, Holgersson & Gottschalk (2006) discuss what knowledge types of patrolling police officers are most important in police investigations. Based on thirty knowledge types identified by Holgersson (2005) in a previous study, they discuss the relevance of these types to investigative situations. This research is important, since the literature in this field suggests that the most essential factor, if a crime is to be solved, is the information provided by the victim to the patrol officer at the crime scene, and thus the successful application of professional knowledge by patrolling officers at the crime scene will enhance the detectives’ ability to solve more crimes and within a shorter time frame.

Holgersson (2005) classified knowledge in use in police practice and found at least thirty categories of knowledge. Broad categories are listed as: using the skills of other police officers; showing empathy towards a victim; prioritizing cases and using available resources effectively; distinguishing deviations and categorizing individuals; objects and events; forming a suspicion; communicating with individuals and groups; getting an informant and interacting with an informant; using and understanding different social language variations; dealing with mentally ill and unstable persons; saving lives and minimizing the proportions of injuries; preparing mentally and communicating with colleagues; mediating peace and solving problems; performing in-house investigation and using information in, among others; computer systems; acting preventive; showing authority and inspiring with respect; conveying a serious message; acting in case of an attack; thinking safety; taking investigation measures at the crime scene; keeping feelings under control and supporting each other; debriefing an event; planning measures based on a certain problem picture and existing legislation; showing consideration and humbleness; using different communication aids; conducting a technical investigation; giving advice and instructions; balancing between common sense; ethics and legislation; using imagination and adapting;, driving techniques to increase the chances of catching an offender; finding an offender; presenting a case to decision-makers.

A patrolling police officer requires a substantial amount of professional knowledge in order to be able to act in an appropriate way (Holgersson & Gottschalk, 2006). Holgersson & Gottschalk (2006) suggest that a mobile IT-system can be adapted to support the patrol officers in different situations with helpful guidelines, law texts, special victim information and other information specific for the type of situation the patrol officer coming into. In that way the patrolling police officers knowledge sharing and performance in police investigations can be increased dramatically with an adequate support from a mobile IT-system.

The Standards of Ethics, Risk Management and Accreditation
According to Hope (2006) one of the main challenges in contemporary police leadership is ethics related. According to Roepke (1995) moral leadership is the most urgent and vital need in society today, since, as Gaudiani (1997) notes, many citizens have lost their faith in the leaders, and unethical leaders have started to be discovered in most unlikely places such as in colleges and universities and in religious organizations. Leaders, whether they are aware of that or not, convey symbolic meanings to employees through their routine behaviors, speeches, various demands and even through their reactions to certain stimulators about the organization's standpoint in terms of justice, fairness, and equity. Ethical leaders, eventually, are responsible for developing a strong and sustainable ethical climate in organizations by using their ability to influence followers to internalize ethical values (Engelbrecht, Van Aswegen, & Theron, 2005). The ethics message begins at the top of an organization and cascades down and throughout its membership and cannot be left to external influence or regulation. Real progress in achieving consistent ethical behavior can only be made when the initiatives for ethics change come from within the organization and particularly from its leaders (Thomas, Schermerhorn Jr, & Dienhart, 2004). In that sense ethical conduct within police organizations starts with the Chief and ethical decision making of the Chief will create an important influence on officers’ discretionary decisions to become ethical as well.

Lipinski (2006) identifies another important challenge in contemporary police leadership as risk management. Identifying risks is the first step in risk management. At this stage categorization of risks is crucial in differentiating risks from one another as each could affect strategy and achievement of objectives. Lipinski (2006) distinguishes risks into two main groups; internal and external. While police organizations can easily influence or control internal risks, external risks are outside the control of the organization. Another categorization differentiates between risk categories of legal, cultural, operational, financial, physical assets, human resources and information resources. The second stage is measuring scope of the risk in terms of monetary consequences. The third step is assessment and prioritization. Fourth step is risk management in terms of accepting, avoiding, reducing or sharing the risk. Lipinski (2006) suggests that in order to assure quality in police organizations and reduce risks the organization should hire the right people, train them, supervise them and audit.

Measuring and Shifting Police Practices/Culture
Coleman (2006) studies strategic performance management in Canadian police organizations due to increased expectations of the public sector, accountability for use of inputs/resources and the raised expectations of the public as a result of increased “community-policing” efforts. Traditional policing is mostly input, process and output focused. Contemporary policing however requires due process, fairness and equity, a customer/client focus-quality and valued customer/client service, consultation/ collaboration internally and with the community – teamwork, continuous improvement, continuous evaluation and change, decentralization of authority and decision making, total involvement, participative leadership, increased communication, internal and external alignment and most importantly is outcome focused (Coleman, 2006).

Referring to Vinzant and Vinzant (1999) he argues that in order to create safe communities free from a fear of crime a comprehensive management approach that helps police organizations align organizational direction with organizational goals to accomplish strategic change is necessary. Based on this philosophy Coleman (2006) surveyed leaders of 75 Canadian police organizations all of which had 50 or more police officers in 2004 in order to measure whether their organizations are outcome or output focused. Most respondents described their organization as a contemporary police organization however study indicated that many police organizations are not managed strategically and still primarily employ output measures of performance as opposed to measures of outcomes – results. They still use measures of their activities rather than focusing on the results achieved through these activities. The apparent absence of a strategic approach and an apparent failure to implement performance accountability mechanisms are found in successful public and private sector organizations suggests these police organizations have yet to fully move into the era of community-policing – contemporary policing – despite their claims to the contrary (Coleman, 2006).

“Nothing is more important to the smooth functioning and stability of a civilized society than an efficient, effective, and professional system of police” (Watt, 1997 as cited in Ozguler, 2006). Ozguler (2006) argues that if what Watt argues is true and widely accepted, then the police is an institution that plays a key role in almost every society. According to Ozguler (2006) modern law enforcement organizations are operationally capable and effective, respectful to human rights and accountable to the society and open to change and open to being inspired by good practices else where. In order to secure democracies by creating modern police departments, Ozguler (2006) refers to the new public management system that can be applied to police departments. New public management system requires; focusing on clear responsibility and accountability for results, client oriented service style, professional and business like management. Ozguler (2006) argues that important concepts in policing like community policing and neighborhood oriented policing also require similar management system including all the components mentioned above. In that sense the way police does its job is also very important in contributing to the success of the organization. The way police does its job is also linked to the organizational culture. According to Glomseth and Gottschalk (2006) organizational culture includes accepted practices, rules, and principles of conduct that are applied to situations within generalized opinions and beliefs. Organizational culture manifests itself at three levels: (a) observable artifacts, (b) values, and (c) basic underlying assumptions. Organizational values represent norms, ideologies, charters, and philosophies that are shared among members in the organization. Examples of values: honesty, integrity, empathy, commitment, fairness, impartiality, loyalty. Finally they argue that what is right and what is wrong, what is desirable and valuable in a work situation dictate the behavior in organizations.

Promotion of the Rule of Law and Human Rights
According to Caparini and Mobekk (2006), “rule of law” is the major focus in democratization efforts in post-conflict and post-authoritarian societies. In their study, they provide an outline of what rule of law is, what obstacles against its promotion exist and how it might be developed. Rule of law is defined by UNSG as “a principle of governance in which all persons, institutions and entities, public and private, including the State itself, are accountable to laws that are publicly promulgated, equally enforced and independently adjudicated, and which are consistent with international human rights norms and standards.” T. Carothers defines it as “a system where laws are public knowledge, are clear in meaning and apply equally to everyone…” According to UN/DPKO rule of law is “judicial systems, policing and correctional institutions: creating effective systems, transitional justice, protecting human rights, functional correctional services, establishing a legitimate political system.” The common notion behind all these definitions is justice. In order to provide justice laws should be reformed appropriately, necessary institutions should be built and government’s compliance with the law should be ensured (Caparini & Mobekk, 2006). The most common problems encountered in creating and implementing Rule of Law (ROL) programs are the difficulties in the technical process, transfer of pre-packaged models without consideration of indigenous differences and promoting short-term objectives as opposed to long-term ones (Caparini & Mobekk, 2006).

Once a program is started to promote ROL, other types of problems emerge. In order to effectively implement a ROL program there is a need to change the mind-set of: government leaders, police, judiciary, correctional officers, and the civil society. This is ensured with tailor-made solutions as opposed to pre-packages, a holistic approach combining efforts of all parts of the society, a focus on outcomes without being delayed in technical fixes, donor coordination, long-term solutions and changing minds, not only outlooks (uniforms, buildings etc.). According to Pleshkova (2006) during the socialization process of recruits within the police organization, attitudes of the police candidates can be shaped accordingly. Although recruits come with their own ideas, beliefs, attitudes, motives, opinions and perceptions, the process they go through in the police academies and during probation can make a difference in terms of promoting a notion of Rule of Law and respect to human rights. Pleshkova (2006) identifies four steps before a recruit is either affiliated with the police culture or failed to affiliate. These steps are initial exposure, indoctrination, identification and extrinsic/intrinsic reinforcement and conformity.

However, challenges to the ROL do not always come from within. Instability within the geographic region of a country can also create problems for promoting ROL as in the case of Australia. According to Craig (2006) Australia has a high interest in a stable and prosperous region as the regional power. However this interest is jeopardized by the loss of hope in the region caused by corrupt governments and failed aid (Craig, 2006). Especially after the tragic event of 9/11 the potential of terrorist attacks launched from near neighbors negatively affect the stability of the region. The potential of terrorist attacks increases especially with the existence of failed states in the region. Functioning states are regarded politically well organized and can be held accountable within the Rule of Law in terms of protecting basic human rights and civil liberties. However, failed states or weak states cannot guarantee to protect civil liberties and human rights due to their weak condition in terms of enforcing their rules (Holmes, 1997). There are several other concerns about weak states that make them problematic in the regional and international arena. Weak states create regional instability due to unpredictability and are characterized with inability to enforce laws, corruption and low economic conditions (Holmes, 1997). Australia has four states that have the potential for failure in fairly close proximity: Timor, the Solomon Islands; Papua New Guinea; and, Fiji (Craig, 2006). Instability in the South Pacific affects Australia’s ability to protect large and significant approaches to Australia, causing concerns about the arc of insecurity, which are: economic; consular; humanitarian and transnational crime and terrorism. Craig (2006) argues that Australia and any other country in the same position should take responsibility and should increase its efforts towards promoting regional stability despite limited resources and lack of cooperation and collaboration.

Looking to the Future
Can multinational corporations (MNCs) offer a fresh new perspective in preventing international terrorism? This is the question asked by Kokaz-Muslu (2006), who argues that the risk management mechanisms used by MNCs are applicable to combating terrorism. She suggests that international business transactions offer many opportunities in the area of preventing terrorism. The effects of globalization such as consolidation of the world, services, currency, and technology terrorism also became a global phenomenon and are an important threat to the globe. Kokaz-Muslu (2006) argues that accepting globalization and the problems it brought about and building solutions around it is the initial step in combating terrorism. The second step is to unify the different views on terrorism that would result in a uniform definition/understanding of terrorism. The importance of multi national corporations in that equation is that most terrorist attacks against the U.S. are directed against the U.S. companies, even more than military or state targets. Foreign investment involves several risks, including political risks involving terrorism. In order to manage political risks MNCs use public relations campaigns, form strategic alliances, and share best practices. Public relations campaigns employed by MNCs can be utilized in order to create terrorism awareness and enhance the image of the U.S. in the world. The tactics that are used by MNCs in order to form strategic alliances can also be used by countries that need alliances in their fight against terrorism. MNCs share best practices to improve quality, customer satisfaction and productivity, and countries fighting terrorism can share best practices towards these goals as well.

Another effect of globalism is the dependency upon computer systems and telecommunications technology (Lewis, 2006). These technologies are constantly evolving and societies are becoming increasingly dependent upon them. As a result, information has become a marketable product, which has become a major component of many national critical infrastructures (Lewis, 2006). Among national critical infrastructures are telecommunications, electrical power systems, gas and oil storage and transportation, banking and finance, transportation, water supply systems, and most importantly emergency services (including medical, police, fire, and rescue). These new technologies are rapidly developing; also the ways to penetrate or disable them are being rapidly devised and disseminated throughout the World Wide Web. Thousands of hacker web sites, message boards, blogs and torrent host sites that cater to distributing hacking tools and techniques in cross social, cultural, economic, geographical and legal jurisdictions are alarming trends (Lewis, 2006). Protecting those critical resources and securing those systems requires knowing how to configure complex systems and networks and an understanding of how attackers may violate, disable, or use them inappropriately. There are two ways to learn how to secure or attack those systems; structured and unstructured. Structured learning involves corporate training, college and/or university training. Unstructured learning can be via peer mentoring from message boards and web sites, books, or tutorials from various hacker groups. Necessary network penetration skills are generally self-taught and latest tools and techniques are immediately available on the Internet without any expense (Lewis, 2006). Controlling, preventing or monitoring unstructured learning may be very difficult, if not impossible. However structured learning can be controlled. The critical issue is to whom these skills are taught and whether they are exposed to pertinent legal, ethical and regulatory issues surrounding the subject matter they are learning. In light of these considerations, Lewis (2006) suggest that academic maturity of students as demonstrated by program enrollment and advanced completion of prerequisite courses should be taken into account and ethical standards and expectations for this profession should be included in the training program. Lewis (2006) also suggests that standards / expectations for cyber defense education should be establish and promoted. Also an International Standards, Recommendations and Review Board that includes individuals from business and industry, law enforcement, academia and all countries should be instituted.

Conclusion

IPES meetings have proven to be a highly efficient way of transferring knowledge in order to bring together ideas, to share experiences, create dialogue and address the needs of the target populations of the participants. Whether it is the communities themselves or policing as a community serving tool, the various needs and problems of law enforcement in very different countries and cultures were shared within a sincere atmosphere, where solutions to such problems were sought and found.

The main subject matter of the meeting, however, was not just about raising and recognizing problems, but also sharing ideas about how to approach such problems through cooperation, collaboration and communication. These three themes were recognized by the participants as tools for police problem solving. Just like members of sports teams, the participants opened their hearts and minds and were ready to accept foreign, yet effective ideas and solutions. As no one patient is like others, our target populations are very different and have different needs, however the similarity of the problems within various jurisdictions throughout the world made the meeting a success in terms of sharing best practice and experiences on what works and what does not work. While looking for solutions for the common problems many ideas were generated towards practical ends. The participants agreed upon one very important theme, among many others. That they will keep referring back to each other in order to serve our communities better and continue the cooperation, collaboration and communication that IPES meetings foster.

The Fourteenth Annual Meeting of the International Police Executive Symposium, on the theme of “Urbanization and Security” will be held April 8-12, 2007 in Dubai, The Unites Arab Emirates hosted by the Dubai Police. For additional information on the Fourteenth Annual Meeting of the IPES or on other upcoming IPES meetings, contact IPES President Dr. Dilip K. Das at dilipkd@aol.com.

References

Albrecht, J. (2006). Community Policing and Problem Solving: Facing Extinction in the USA; Migratory Survival in Europe. Paper presented at the Thirteenth Annual Meeting of International Police Executive Symposium, May 26-30, Ayvalik, Turkey.

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