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Executive Summaries

2000 United States Meeting Summary

SEVENTH INTERNATIONAL POLICE EXECUTIVE SYMPOSIUM

TRAFFIC POLICING: AN INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE

Evanston, Illinois, USA
July 9-12, 2000

Submitted by
Peter C. Kratcoski, Ph.D., Official Recorder IPES

The Seventh International Police Executive Symposium was held in Evanston, Illinois, USA, from July 9 through July 12, 2000. The theme of the symposium was “Traffic Policing: An International Perspective.” The symposium was hosted by the Northwestern University Center for Public Safety and the Harley-Davidson Motor Company. Plattsburg State University of New York contributed important support and provided invaluable assistance. The local organizer for the symposium was Dr. Alexander Weiss, Director, Northwestern University Center for Public Safety. The Local Organizing Committee included Steve Caruso, Mylene Mauclair, and Ron Fisher, members of the Center for Public Safety staff. The Symposium Organizer and Program Coordinator was Dr. Dilip Das, Professor, Plattsburgh State University of New York, Founder/President, International Police Executive Symposium.

Representatives from 4l countries, from Africa, Asia, the Middle East, Europe, North America, the Caribbean region, Central America, and South America, made presentations at the symposium sessions. Approximately 70 persons were in attendance as participants or observers. The symposium participants were welcomed by Dr. Lidia Via Camera, Vice-President for Research, Northwestern University. Special presentations were made by John Syberson, a representative of Harley-Davidson Corporation Police Vehicle Division, and Patrick Lang, Director of the International Criminal Investigative Training Assistance Program (ICITAP), a U.S. Department of Justice agency that provides police training and technical assistance to new and emerging democracies throughout the world. The Harley-Davidson Corporation provided a training demonstration on the use Harley-Davison motorcycles in police work.

The four-day symposium was designed to provide many opportunities for the participants to interact with each other and exchange ideas and information in both formal and informal settings. The delegates were housed at the Omni Orrington Hotel, and the symposium sessions and a welcoming reception were held at its conference center. They gathered for meals at the hotel and at local restaurants, and took part in an extensive sight-seeing tour of the Chicago area. The Local Organizer, Dr. Alexander Weiss, hosted an informal evening reception at his home. The participants received Certificates of Symposium Completion at a farewell luncheon held at the Allen Center, Northwestern University.

Each symposium participant was asked to prepare a paper on traffic policing in his/her country, making reference to the country’s geography, population characteristics, economy, and transportation systems, and explaining the constraints, problems, and challenges these factors presented to effective traffic policing. Each was asked to describe the structure and size of the traffic policing units and the types of equipment and modern technologies available for effective traffic policing and crime control, the relation of traffic policing to economic development, traffic policing procedures for special events, traffic policing and crime control, and international cooperation as a facet of traffic policing in his/her country.

Types of Governments and Stages of Economic Development

Representatives from all of the countries attending the symposium made the
point that traffic policing in their countries was closely related to political and economic conditions. As Araba (2000: 10-11) of Nigeria observed:

The political, socio-economic development, as well as
the cultural and demographic factors of a country can affect the
policing of a society. These factors can enhance or hamper
police performance in the areas of traffic policing and crime
control. The social and political conditions of a country to a
large extent determine the style and system of policing; hence
the policing is closely linked to the historical dynamics of the
country.

The countries represented at the symposium differed widely in both their types of governments and their stages of economic development. The African nations, which included Cameroon, Gambia, Ghana, Lesotho, Namibia, and Nigeria, had many similarities in their histories of political development and policing. All of them were under colonial rule in the past, with their governments and justice systems imposed on them. When each country obtained independence, portions of the existing system were maintained. Some of these countries have stable political situations, while other are volatile. Before independence, the thrust of economic development and the allocation of the countries’ wealth were toward benefiting the ruling country, and transport systems were designed to provide conveniences for the ruling class rather than for the indigenous population. After independence, there was a need to redistribute the countries’ wealth to develop the infrastructures and resources for the common good and to unite ethnically diverse populations. As Francis (2000:2) observed:

Cameroon is a republic made up of the former East Cameroon- French speaking, and the former West Cameroon-English speaking, that gained political independence in 1960 from two colonial masters, France and Britain. Since then, the dreams and aspirations have been to create a united and prosperous nation despite the diversity in tribes, religion and culture.

Uniting the newly independent countries frequently required modernization and extension of the existing highway systems. All of the speakers from the African countries represented at the symposium emphasized how important an efficient and safe transport system is to a country’s economy. It provides safety and security for travelers, reduces delays, and allows goods and services to be exchanged and delivered efficiently. This increases investor confidence and encourages tourism, resulting in economic benefits and financial gains. Nghlishililwa (2000:6) described the situation in Namibia:

Namibia is a vast and sparsely populated country and the transport infrastructure such as road network is therefore of greater economic importance than in smaller, more densely populated countries. Poor people in the remote parts of the country can be better served by efficient infrastructures and network Other sectors of the economy such as tourism and trade rely on a safe and efficient transport sector with concomitant orderly flow of traffic.

The types and severity of the problems of traffic policing in the African countries varied, but certain difficulties related to economic problems were common in all of the countries. These included: (1) a shortage of the funding and trained personnel need to enforce traffic laws, (2) a large proportion of the roads and highways are not paved or are in disrepair, making driving hazardous, (3) many drivers illegally obtain driver’s licenses and other transport documents, (4) traffic policing technology is not well developed (computers and radar are not available, traffic lights are not efficient, and cameras at traffic lights and intersections are not available to identify offenders. Mobile phones are just being introduced), (5) many countries have experienced a dramatic increase in the amount of traffic without corresponding increases in highway construction, (6) appropriate equipment is not available to test drivers suspected of driving while under the influence of alcohol, (7) speed regulations are difficult to enforce because of insufficient personnel, with most rural areas and villages not even patrolled by the police, (8) increases in international travel (tourists, migrant workers) have created a need for more international cooperative agreements. These are difficult to enforce, because countries are reluctant to relinquish their sovereignty. Some progress has been made, including SAARPCO (the Southern African Police Chiefs’ Co-operative Organization, established in 1995), that can work on control of traffic across borders, reducing smuggling and drug
trafficking and extraditing those charged with criminal offenses, and (9) lack of research pertaining to the causes of traffic accidents and deaths, trends in traffic accidents, and effective methods police may use to control or reduce these.

The Middle Eastern and Asian countries represented at the symposium, including Bahrain, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, the Syrian Arab Republic, India, China, and Israel, differ in their forms of government and in economic wealth. Their approaches to traffic policing and their types of traffic-related problems and concerns vary accordingly. All of these countries are in a process of change, through modernization, urbanization, and economic development. Bahrain, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and United Arab Emirates, Arabic countries governed by the Islamic legal traditions and culture, have natural resources, particularly oil, that provide income for the governments. The populations of these countries are increasing and the lifestyles and standards of living are improving. Economic prosperity has resulted in very rapid increases in the ownership of vehicles in these countries, creating problems of traffic congestion. Frequently, the highway infrastructures cannot accommodate these changes. The problems occurring were illustrated by Barakat (2000), in his description of traffic policy and urban transportation planning for Damascus City in the Syrian Arab Republic. The streets of this 5,000-year-old city were not built to accommodate today’s large buses, taxis, and automobiles. This old city illustrates many of the types of problems presented by speakers from the Middle East and Asia, including narrow streets, inadequate traffic control systems, and the use of the streets by autos, pedestrians, bicycles, and animals at the same time. As Barakat (2000:7) observed:

During the last three decades, the city of Damascus and
its surrounding areas have faced a dynamic residential and
economic expansion, which reflects a sustained economic growth.
The expansion . . . resulted in increasing the transport demand
for people and goods. Due to the non-existence of a complete
view the traffic situation became unbearable in several points,
including transport means and infrastructure.. In addition, the
expansion in land-use and construction area with longer travel
distances resulted in increasing the transport demand for people
and goods.

Economic expansion is another motivation for the Middle Eastern countries to revamp their infrastructures. As Al Nasr and Al Malki (2000:11) stated:

Qatar is looking to diversity its economy base. This means planning
to build more hotels, recreational centers, cultural attractions, office
headquarters, shopping centers. . . These developments that sprang up lead
to rapid growth of traffic on roads. More efforts and planning are directed
towards accommodating this growth.

Economic growth resulted in a huge increase in the number of vehicles
registered in Bahrain, and the opening of a causeway that linked Bahrain to
Saudi Arabia created some problems. Al-Khatayyat and Ali (2000:13-14) described
the situation:

This meant another increase in the number of cars in Bahrain
especially at weekends and holidays. . . . It also brought other problems
in relation to dealing with offenders who commit offenses whilst they
are visiting. The increase in prosperity of all the other Gulf States has
also had an effect on Bahrain roads. New regulations had to be made
to deal with offences committed by G.C.C. (Gulf Co-operation Council)
nationals outside the offenders’ own country. . . . The vast increase in
vehicles meant that other systems had to be introduced, i.e., driving
instruction and driving tests, vehicle examination, driving license records
and administration to deal with the increase in road accidents.

India, the largest democracy in the world, with a population of approximately one billion, is also experiencing rapid industrial and urban growth. It has 40 cities with over one million population. There are more than 45 million vehicles in India. Its traffic problems are also related to an inadequate infrastructure. Road use is constantly increasing, with people, vehicles, and animals competing for space. As Pasricha (2000: 5) noted:

While the growth in autos is more than l30 times during
the period l95l-l997 and the goods traffic and passenger traffic
have gone up by more than 90 times, the road infrastructure has
not been expanded beyond 9 times, thus creating huge gaps
between the demand and supply. And the demand continues to
rise at a galloping pace.

Revenues gained from road taxes and licensing do not tend to be placed back into developing the transportation system. The management of public order events, such as processions and demonstrations, is a major task for the traffic police. Public transportation in the cities is becoming less capable of handling the increase in usage, despite attempts to revitalize the system.

China, a Marxist country of more than a billion population, is also experiencing rapid economic and urban growth. Peixing (2000:l) observed that planning for urban road transportation management is vital to sustainable development of that country’s economy.

We have clearly seen from the course of history that the rise
and fall of [the] economy often depends on the structure of transpor-
tation. At the same time, economic development also promotes the
development and improvement of transportation. . . The course of
development of modern economy and society has shown that, as a rule,
road transportation in large and medium-sized cities with a concentrated
economy has effectively promoted the economic development of these
cities.

Passricha (2000:12) also pointed out the transportation problems China faces today:

Of all the four necessities for every day life, clothing,
food, housing and transportation, the most difficult thing is
transportation. As people’s demand for transportation is
growing, convenience, freedom from impedance and safety are
what they are most interested in.

Since Israel became an independent country with a democratic form of government in 1948, it has absorbed immigrants from all over the world and its population has constantly increased. From l972 to l997 the population doubled, and the transportation system has had to accommodate this growth. In l999 there were l,700,000 vehicles and 3,050,000 licensed drivers (Efrat, 2000:32). The number of young, inexperienced drivers has also increased. The major problems are tailgating, speeding, and careless driving. Efrat (2000:20-21) observed that road accidents have an economic impact in Israel. He presented the cost of fatal accidents, serious accidents and minor accidents and stated that, because there were 2,437 fewer accidents in 1999 than in 1998, the Israeli economy saved the equivalent of approximately $63 million dollars. Efrat (2000:21) further asserted that:

Although difficult to evaluate in economic terms, time
saved also has a price. “Time is money.” Fewer accidents and
less traffic delays have financial implications. Better traffic flow
also provides cost savings. Add to this the fuel savings, and reduced
air pollution, and you immediately discover that road accidents have
a major impact on many aspects of life.

The Caribbean countries represented at the symposium, including Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Guyana and Jamaica, ranging in size from less than 100,000 to 2.5 million, have very similar histories, types of policing, structures, and problems and concerns. All of them were under British rule for long periods of time, are English speaking and are heavily steeped in the British cultural, legal, and policing traditions. Their independence was obtained peacefully, with cooperation and assistance from the British. Their populations are increasing and their economies are quite healthy, with tourism being a major source of revenue. However, road construction and traffic control have not always kept pace with these developments. For example, Slowe (2000:13-14)
reported that in Guyana:

Significant increases in motor vehicle population and failure
to increase the roadways have operated to ensure that traffic policing
has become more and more challenging as the police seek to ensure
that traffic flows in a regular and orderly manner. . . .

The current situation is one where most of the roads do not
have adequate signs and markings, and the traffic lights which are
located in the city are outdated and difficult to maintain. . . . The
fact that the roads do not have adequate signs has led to a situation
whereby traffic policing has become very stressful. . . . Because of
the level of economic development in the country a sizable percentage
of the commuting public, including school children, commute to and
from work and other activities on bicycles. . . . Especially at peak
hours there is a potentially deadly mix of motor vehicles, pedestrians
and cyclists competing for the limited road space.

The representative from Jamaica (Bryan, 2000:9-10) reported similar difficulties.

The large number of vehicles is a result of the poor
public transport system which commuters depend on to
move from home to school and work and back. . The
government has moved to take corrective action. They
are taking over the public transportation and will soon
be reintroduction the train service. At present commuters
and freight all move by road except bauxite. . . . Traffic
congestion is a daily part of our lives. It is compounded
by the fact that there is not much choice by way of alternative
routes. The roads leading into the city are for the most [part]
undivided two way drive.

The speaker from Barbados (Gabriel, 2000: 5-6) vividly described the problems created by an inadequate infrastructure and police understaffing:

Traffic policing has been increasingly challenging over
the past five years for the Royal Barbados Police Force. . . . The
proliferation of vehicles on a stagnant road network has created
nightmares for those involved in traffic management. . . . We
have also seen that the same intolerance and aggression that has
become a feature of our crime is demonstrated in the driving
habits of the road users. The absence of sufficient numbers of
police officers to forcibly return some order to road use has not
helped the problem. . . . unless the number of persons available
for such duties is increased, it will be impossible for us to provide
the quality of enforcement that is required. . . . Elements of “road
rage” occur on our roads. . . . There is also impatience. . . . In an
effort to get ahead in traffic there is a display of gross intolerance,
breaking of red lights at traffic light systems and indiscriminate
overtaking on the shoulders of the highways.

The European countries represented at the symposium included Austria, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Ireland, Macedonia, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia, Sweden, and Turkey. Many of these countries are experiencing economic growth and prosperity, and several of the speakers implied that these developments, while bringing many benefits, also had certain negative effects in terms of traffic-related problems. For example, Ireland, with the fastest growing economy in Europe, has experienced great increases in the number of vehicles registered and in the average annual miles traveled per vehicle. McHugh (2000: 10-11) observed that the economic boom and the need for workers to commute long distances have created problems for traffic police.

There are two main consequences: (1) increased congestion on national roads and (2) increased driver fatigue. . . . We have been obliged to consider traffic management measures in areas where traffic congestion never existed prior to the birth of our “Celtic Tiger” economy.

For the Eastern European nations with developing democracies, the transition in government has presented difficulties, and the acceptance of the rule of law has not yet been fully ingrained into the values and cultures of the emerging nations. Slovenia, which became a democratic republic in 1991, has problems with traffic safety. Zajc (2000:10) described the situation in this way:

The fundamental problems of road traffic safety in Slovenia
are related to the unacceptable safety situation (a high number of
deaths, physical injuries and great material damage), inadequate
planning co-ordination, the performance and evaluation of the
efficiency of traffic safety measures between various state institutions
and other private organizations.

Zajc (2000:1) made the point that, for the situation to change, citizens most
accept personal responsibility for road traffic safety rather than depending on the police to control the behavior of drivers. He observed that:

. . . the role and meaning the police in road traffic safety
have traditionally been given importance that is too high. . . .
The latest opinion polls of the year 2000 have again shown that
Slovenians regard the police as the most important factor in the
process of improving the road traffic safety situation.

Estonia, which became an independent republic in 1991, also has a poor record of traffic safety. Kasesalu (2000:18) described the road safety level there as “one of the worst in Europe.” Many of the reasons for Estonia’s bad road safety level given by Kasesalu (2000:18) involved problems with citizen actions and attitudes.

- wrong attitudes in society toward the road safety,
- lack of systematic development of road safety activities,
- disadvantages in children’s traffic education
- disadvantages in drivers’ training,
- poor quality of drivers and pedestrians attitudes toward road safety,
- drinking and driving,
- low level of safety restraint usage,
- lack of infrastructure development

The South American, and Central American countries represented included Ecuador, Panama and El Salvador. These countries have similar economies, cultures, and political systems, and they also have rapidly increasing populations, resulting in congestion, and inadequate infrastructures. Chinchilla (2000:13) described the situation in El Salvador:

. . . El Salvador and specifically the metropolitan
area of San Salvador, starting for the 90’s decade, has
experienced a high index of urban development . . . and at
the same time the necessities of the population’s transport
have been increased. As a result we have big vehicular
congestions that besides harming the populations’ economic
well being, it causes annoyances inside it.

The North American countries represented, Canada and the United States, experienced economic growth and prosperity. Koenig (2000:3) observed that Canada’s transportation system “facilitates the shipment of goods and the relocation of individuals for educational purposes or to follow the labor market opportunities.” One focus of
traffic policing in Canada related to economic activities is to enforce restrictions on the weight, length of trucks and on the number of hours during a 24 hour period that a driver has been on the road (Koenig, 2000:4).

In the United States, state and local governments rather than the national government have responsibility for traffic regulation, and there are numerous differences in laws from state to state. However, the national government can withhold funding for highway construction or law enforcement grants from states that do not satisfactorily address such traffic safety issues as driving under the influence and use of safety restraints (Dougherty and Caruso, 2000: 4). The fragmented policing system existing in the United States often results in several police jurisdictions becoming involved in enforcing traffic regulations and dealing with crime problems associated with traffic. For example, the Illinois State Police have the primary responsibility for patrolling the interstate and state highways that pass through numerous large and small municipalities throughout the state. A traffic offender may cross a number of police jurisdictions. Although the Illinois State Police can make arrests on these highways, there is often an agreement to have the local police handle traffic problems within the borders of municipalities. The Illinois State Police also provide assistance with traffic problems and criminal investigations in small towns with limited police resources (Leonard, 2000:1)

In the United States, traffic flow and control are closely related to economic development, since workers must sometimes commute long distances, and downtown areas of large cities and connecting highways tend to be crowded and congested at certain hours. Urban planners are very aware of this fact. The objectives of the city of Chicago’s T21 (Transportation for the 21st Century) program, which is concerned with the improvement of the flow of vehicular and pedestrian traffic, included the following points (Dougherty and Caruso 2000: 5):

-City officials must provide the safest possible traffic schemes . . .
-New or updated infrastructure modifications need to be accomplished
before any enterprise or residential zone is constructed.
-Roads must be constructed in a manner that the safety of the
citizens utilizing them is paramount in the minds of
the planners.
-Underground or raised pedestrian crossing must be included
in any plan where there are, or the possibility exists
that there will be, large number of pedestrians utilizing
a crossing.
-Accurate projections of anticipated population growth need to
be factored in before any and all decisions.
-Street widths must be determined with concessions to mass
transportation firmly in mind.

Territorial Location

The specific location of a country is very important in determining the types of transportation systems needed and the problems or concerns the police will have in providing safe, effective traffic policing. All of the speakers at the symposium emphasized how important an efficient and safe transport system is to a country’s economy. It provides safety and security for travelers, reduces delays, and allows goods and services to be exchanged and delivered efficiently. This increases investor confidence and encourages tourism, resulting in economic benefits and financial gains.

The topographical nature of the territory being patrolled by traffic police
is an especially important factor in Lesotho. Since only 13% of the country is not
mountainous, horses are very widely used for patrol (Malema, 2000: l). With the creation of roads across the mountains, more vehicles are now coming into the country, and
the traffic police must checking on traffic flow, investigate accidents and do spot checks for guns and drugs.

Several speakers from European countries noted that many of the serious problems related to traffic movement are beyond the control of the police and can only be addressed through legislation or through international agreements. For example, the Austrian highways are the primary roadways used by neighboring nations to transport cargos, with resulting damage to Austrian roads, extreme noise air pollution, and traffic jams. Landau and Edelbacher (2000:7) described the situation:

. . . East European vehicles are still a big problem for
Austrian traffic police. First there is the problem of the East
European trucks and heavy trucks. Many of these trucks are
taking routes through Austria in spite of more kilometers to go.
The reasons is, Austrian interstates and freeways are very much
better than East European ones. . . . Today, about 150,000
vehicles are crossing the A 23 daily, there are days with 180,000
or even more. From these usually l50,000 vehicles, a good
30,000 trucks use this expressway. . . . The result is a daily traffic
jam of about 6 hours. . . . the jam of heavy trucks and the noise
produced by these trucks as they pass through the Alpine interstates
slowly are the most important problems for traffic police. Therefore
solutions must be found very quickly, otherwise traffic collapse
will be unavoidable on Austria’s major interstates and freeways.

It is also suspected that the opening of the borders has led to increased criminal activity on these highways. For example, the location of Romania makes it the passage state between East Europe and Western Europe, as well as the buffer between the capitalist countries and those just emerging from Soviet domination. Traffic through the country is increasing and consequently the roads are deteriorating and congested, but there is little money for improvements because of Romania’s difficult economic situation. Traffic accident rates and crimes involving movement of goods on these highways are increasing. As Bitter (2000:2-3) described the current situation:

. . . Romania is . . . situated at the cross-border of the European axes-
North-Southern one (the Balkan states) and the East-Western one
(Russia and Western Europe). . . . The inner and transit traffic through
the Romanian territory combine drivers belonging both to European
and Asian civilizations and that is a real fact police have to take into
serious consideration applying a unitary European set of traffic rules
and regulations. . . . both the infrastructure and the normal possibilities
of police monitoring . . . are affected. . . . The continuous decrease of
the economy has determined a tremendous degradation of the Romanian
road net. During the latest 2-3 years the work of road infrastructure
rehabilitation has somehow increased, still the most localities are confronted
with major problems due to the poor streets and busy traffic.

Speakers from other European countries also mentioned traffic congestion, accidents, and an increase in criminal activity on the highways as effects resulting from the elimination of border controls. Control of international crime is a major concern, and there is a need for more international cooperation in the forms of standardization of traffic laws, exchange programs for police training, and education for officers on the challenges created by the changing political situation. Simonovic and Mijovic (2000: 25-26) described the problems in Yugoslavia:

According to geographical location the territory of Yugoslavia
is a very important area for smuggling drugs in West Europe. Drugs
are transported from the Near East through territory of Yugoslavia to
Hungary and further to West European countries. There is a very
important road of drugs from Kosovo to West European countries, too.
. . . [There is a] need for undertaking systematic control of vehicles;
luggage, burdens and passengers in traffic especially, at night with the
aim to improve detecting smugglers of drugs. . . .
From the point of global view, international police cooperation
is necessary in the area of crime control of traffic. That collaboration
should have the following aims: to make quicker exchange of
information about different crime appearances as well as police
methods of operating, to improve the ways for police education,
training, and technical equipment. Organized crime has established
an enviable success of international collaboration a long time ago,
. . . the locally organized traffic police are often outwitted by
internationally associated smuggler mafias.

The representatives from South and Central American countries also described the problems created by use of their highways by persons from other countries as connections to other destinations. This was particularly true for Panama. Sinisterra (2000: 6) noted that this type of traffic resulted in many accidents, traffic congestion, and failure of drivers to adhere to the local traffic regulations.

Speakers from all continents emphasized the need for more cooperation among the nations in the area of policing involving crossing of national borders. This could take the forms of standardization of traffic laws, cooperative ventures for police training, exchange of information on technological innovations pertaining to traffic control and crime prevention, and establishing new international cooperative agreements related to traffic control, as well as strengthening existing agreements. Francis (2000:10) of Cameroon stated:

With the rising transnational organized criminal activities,
coupled with the sophisticated methods used nowadays by inter-
national criminals, for a better and lasting perspective, there must
be permanent concerted efforts by nations and multilateral
agencies.

The Southern African Regional Police Chiefs Cooperation Organization (SARPCCO) was described as an example of an organization that has had some success with controlling traffic problems across borders and reducing international crimes such as smuggling and drug trafficking.

Duties and Training of Traffic Police

The duties and responsibilities of traffic police described by symposium participants varied, depending on the economic development of the country, the size of the population and its distribution (cities or rural areas), and the types of technology available. Generally, their duties included promoting public safety on streets and highways, directing traffic, protecting pedestrians, aiding motorists in distress, enforcing parking and other traffic laws, licensing drivers, protecting dignitaries, crowd and demonstration management, examining cargo for illegal goods, collecting tolls, and accident investigation. Policing technique may involve foot patrol, use of mounted police, or various forms of vehicular patrol using cars, scooters, bicycles, motorcycles or other vehicles designed for easy maneuverability through crowded streets and/or small passageways..

The amount of training needed for officers to assume traffic policing positions varied by country, but all of the speakers believed that additional in-service training and education should occur throughout the officer’s career. The operation of the cutting-edge technology that is constantly being introduced requires such training. The speaker from Ecuador (Hugo, 2000:11) reported that in his country the policies and methods used to control traffic and detect those who are in violation of traffic laws have not kept pace with the rapid economic development of the country. The needed improvements were listed as:

- the control of drivers under the influence of alcohol
- high speed drivers’ control
- laser guns to detect speed
- electromechanical semaphore systems need modernization
- specialization in traffic engineering for police officers (12)

Although some of the lag in technological development involves the lack of power systems to put high-tech devices into effect, another important factor is a need to train officers in the use of sophisticated technological devices.

In Africa, there is a need to further develop traffic policing for the airports, waterways, canals, and harbors. This is handled to some degree by special policing
units, but needs to be expanded. In Ghana, private sector participation has taken the
form of transport unions which draw up codes of conduct for their members and have
union guards and task force personnel check for careless driving, drunkenness and
overloading and report offenders to police for appropriate action (Appiah, 2000: 12-13).

Structure of Traffic Policing

For most of the nations represented at the symposium, the traffic police constituted a unit of the national police force. Typically, the supervision and administration of the national police force is carried out by the Ministry of Justice or the Ministry of the Interior, and in some countries traffic policing is very intricately linked with the operations of various government agencies. For example, in Cameroon the Ministry of Transport, the Ministry of Trade and Industry, and the Ministry of Economy and Finance all have some responsibility for establishing and enforcing laws and regulations related to traffic. The city councils are responsible for maintaining road signals within their cities, and the national gendarmerie enforces security laws and safety of airplanes, while customs is responsible for smuggling control (Francis, 2000: 4-5). The Namibian Police Force, headed by the Inspector-General of Police, is divided into different units, as described by Nghishililwa (2000: 4):

. . . the Traffic Police Unit [is] responsible for highway patrol
and for traffic control in small settlements where there are no local
traffic officers, the Vehicle Theft Unit [is] responsible for the combating
and investigation of motor vehicle theft. . . . There are 2l Traffic
sub-units and 20 satellite traffic testing facilities countrywide.

In Nigeria, the national police force includes several sections responsible for traffic policing. According to Araba (2999:21), these include the Police Motor Division, established at the divisional levels of each state command, which is responsible for coordinating traffic policing and managing accident cases, Traffic Wardens, who control and regulate traffic in the cities and urban areas, the Federal Road Safety Corps, which patrols the major roads, and the Federal Highway Patrol, established for traffic policing and combating crime on the highways.

In Turkey, the High Council for Road Safety, which meets twice a year, determines targets for road safety, based on the proposals of the Road Traffic Safety Council. The Road Traffic Safety Council, which meets monthly to make proposals aimed at reducing the number of road accidents, to review road safety problems, and to consider the need for new legislation, includes representatives of the High Council for Road Safety, the Turkish Institution for Standards, the Federation of Turkish Drivers and Automobiles, related universities, the Union of the Turkish Architects and Engineers Chamber, the Turkish Association for Prevention of Road Traffic Accidents, the Turkish Foundation for Preventing Accidents, and the mayor of Ankara (Isildar, 2000: 3-4)..

Ireland, with its national police service, An Garada Siochana, is divided into six regions, and further sub-divided into 26 divisions. Each division has a divisional traffic unit/corps with responsibility for traffic law enforcement and management. The Garda National Traffic Bureau was formed in 1997, taking over the previous Traffic Section of the Garda Technical Bureau, to devise national strategies to cut the rate of deaths and injuries on the highways. The Bureau compiles statistics, is involved in committees on traffic and road safety matters, and advised on policy and legislative changes (McHugh, 2000: 6-7, 14).

In several of the countries represented, the police forces were administered by regional, provincial, or state governments rather than nationally, and the police functions pertaining to traffic fell under the jurisdiction of these governments. In the United States, state and local governments rather than the national government have responsibility for traffic regulation (Dougherty and Caruso, 2000: 4). In Canada, both the federal and
provincial governments are involved. As Koenig (2000:1) described the situation:

. . . the federal Criminal Code defines the crimes of reckless driving,
driving under the influence, and a small number of related driving
offenses. However, the provinces also involve themselves in these
issues under their variously named “non-criminal” motor vehicle
acts.

Traffic policing is typically very intricately linked with the operations of a number of other government agencies. These include the ministries for transport, trade and industry, economic development and finance, and immigration and customs. Even in those countries having a national police force there was a great need for collaboration and communication with local government agencies, with the countries allowing the local communities to assume varying degrees of responsibility for police actions.

The size and importance of the traffic division, in relation to the total policing operations of a country, province, or city varied, depending on the economic development of the country, the size and distribution (urban or rural) of its population, the types of technology available, and specific policies or philosophies developed by police administrators in regard to the role of traffic police. For example, in the United States the city of Chicago’s police traffic division was recently significantly reduced in size as a result of delegation of responsibility for patrolling the interstate highways through Chicago to the State of Illinois Highway Patrol and an increased emphasis on community policing within the Chicago Police Department (Leonard, 2000, 1).

Technological Innovations

The use of state-of-the-art technology for traffic control and law enforcement was dependent upon each country’s wealth, stage of development, and need for such innovations. Practically all countries used some form of radar for motorist speed measurement, mobile telephones for communication, and instruments to measure the level of alcohol use by drivers.

The level of sophistication of the technology used by the police of the countries represented at the symposium varied tremendously, depending on the size of the country and its needs. The Royal Police Force of Antigua and Barbuda relies of rather basic technological equipment to perform its duties, as described by Hunte (2000:23-24):

The Royal Police force of Antigua and Barbuda as it stands
is equipped with V.H.F. sets, which are issued to Police Personnel to
include traffic going out on patrol duties. . . . We are also equipped
with Traffic Lights at some of our major intersections. These lights
came into operations during the 1980s. Prior to these lights, Traffic
Personnel were detailed at those major intersections to regulate and
direct the traffic. . . . Not all of our vehicles are equipped with radios
to communicate back to the stations in the case of assistance, but
most of them [are]. . . . The Doppler Digital Traffic Radar is still in
use by our department. There are two hand held Radars in the department
and one Golden Eagle Radar which is attached or built in a Motor Vehicle.
Most of our offices are equipped with computers.

Another Caribbean nation, Barbados, has more sophisticated technology for traffic policing. In addition to various radar devices, they are equipped with red-light cameras which record pictures of offending vehicles that run light signals, a helicopter to monitor traffic flow, computers in police vehicles, cameras in main city areas to monitory traffic flows, and speed censor machines to carry out surveys (Gabriel, 2000:16).

The representatives from the Caribbean and South American countries mentioned that they relied on the expertise of other countries for training and technical advice. Recent innovations included use of new technological devices to detect traffic regulation violators and for receiving instant information at driver checkpoints, new legislation to increase penalties for infractions, and educational programs.

The national police forces of the Middle East countries represented at the symposium, Bahrain, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the Syrian Arab Republic, and United Arab Emirates, have good technical resources. In Bahrain, the police have modern equipment, and take overseas courses to learn about the latest developments. VASCAR (Visual Average Speed Computer and Recorder) devices and laser speed detection devises are available. Exhaust emissions are monitored and a modern radio communication system is used (Al-Khayyat and Ali, 2000: 3).

The speaker from Israel demonstrated how the use of technology could effectively lead to a reduction of accidents and detect traffic violators. The major problems in Israel are tailgating, speeding, and careless driving. The MAROM system is used to detect drivers who tailgate or speed. Also, cameras at traffic lights and radar use have led to a reduction in the rate of auto accidents (Efrat, 2000: 20-21). Although such equipment as Israel’s MAROM system is not commonly available, cameras at traffic lights and sophisticated methods to detect forged driver’s licenses and verify other documents were being used in many countries.

There appeared to be a consensus that state of the art technological equipment alone would not be effective in reducing the traffic deaths and accidents in a specific country. Instead, multifaceted approaches to accident prevention and public safety were used. These included employment of rather sophisticated devices for detection of violators and for receiving instant information at driver checkpoints, new legislation to increase penalties for infractions, and driver and pedestrian education programs. Those countries that had experienced decreases in accidents and in fatalities, even though the number of licensed drivers and the number of autos in the countries had increase dramatically, attribute this success to such factors as improved roadways, legislative changes, improvements in medical response to accidents, strict enforcement of regulations related to alcohol offenders, lifelong driver education programs, retesting of drivers, improvements in officer training and advances in the technology related to traffic management and law enforcement.

The speaker from Canada revealed that traffic fatalities there have decreased
considerably in recent years, even though the number of licensed drivers has increased
dramatically. Koenig (2000: 9) stated:

It is difficult to identify the relative importance and the
specific causes for this decline. Certainly increased attention
to enforcement, particularly as regards impaired driving, has
played a role, as has education about drinking and driving,
seat belt and helmet use, and so forth. There has been engineering
improvements to both vehicles and roads, as well as improved
technologies for enforcement. First response mobile paramedic
units and improvements to the health care system have undoubtedly
saved the lives of some who otherwise would have died. The aging
of the population unquestionably has also accounted for some of the
decline.

Koenig (2000:9-10) also noted that the private sector could be much more involved in the whole matter of traffic policing, and cooperative private and public agency ventures should be encouraged.

The Need for Driver Education

Although technological innovations can identify offending drivers, the solutions
to traffic enforcement problems may lie in another direction. The speaker from Germany (Knieling,2000: 19) remarked that stricter traffic laws, more rigid enforcement, and use of state of the art technical equipment will not be completely effective in deterring traffic-related accidents and crimes unless they are combined with sound education programs on traffic safety that are designed to help drivers develop positive attitudes and habits in regard to traffic safety. He stated:

There are a number of police officers who say, with the use of
modern technology you can build up a deterrent factor. . . . To be honest,
there has been only minor demonstrated success in changing drivers’
behavior by traffic enforcement with the use of automatic detection
system in Germany. Our method is to successfully detect and to
prosecute offenders, but we can’t say this anonymous way of
enforcement changes drivers’ behavior in general. Therefore the risk
of detection by police is nowhere near high enough.

Several other speakers also made the point that education of drivers is really the key to long-term reductions in accidents and injuries. As the representative from Finland (Haapapa and Malkia, 2000:15) observed:

Traffic accidents should be seen as a national health problem.
Accident statistics are brought closer to the individual by exposing the
number of people in need of hospitalization because of traffic accidents
and the cost of absence from work and hospitalization for society. . . .
. . . traffic safety is an important element in the inhabitants’ attitudes
toward their living environment. . . . Citizens can and will take an
active part in improving the safety and health aspects of their own
environment. With increased appreciation of and participation in
traffic safety work, the inhabitants’ own behavior on the road will
become more safety-oriented.

Stojanovski and Doncev of Macedonia (2000:7) confirmed the importance of driver education by noting that “when there is a traffic accident between 60 to 90% of the causes point to the human factor and the greatest number of them point to the drivers.” They further observed that:

The offenders of the traffic regulations in most cases do not
act with an intention or meanness. Very often they are citizens with
high human values and respected in the community. However, their
momentary careless entanglement or thoughtlessness has led to a
consequence in the traffic which very often they themselves suffer from.

The speakers from Ireland (McHugh, 2000) and Finland (Haapapa and Malkia, 2000) emphasized the need for life-long education in traffic safety, beginning in pre-school and continuing throughout life. They stressed the need to socialize children
in the importance of having positive safety habits. Qatar also embraces this concept,
as noted by Al Nasr and Al Malki (2000:13):

The Traffic Department, with collaboration and close
coordination with the public Relations Department of the
Ministry of the Interior, always strives to create good relationships
with tomorrow’ drivers. . . . [it] has designed and conducted many
educational traffic programmes in kindergartens and schools to
teach the young generation and men of the future the fundamentals
of traffic by simplified street models and traffic signs. Training
programmes are also made to teach and train these youngsters how
and where and when to cross safely.

Planning and Research

Several of the representatives presented well-thought-out traffic management plans designed to establish stable road traffic safety situations and provide both qualitative and quantitative police activity. The plans generally involved changing or updating laws (mandating seat belts, changing driver’s license requirements, setting new blood alcohol acceptability levels), setting specific, measurable goals for reductions in accident levels, rigidly enforcing laws, developing traffic education programs, and involving the private sector and the citizens in the implementation of the plans.

Culture, traditions, and customs must always be considered in planning for safe and effective control of vehicular and pedestrian traffic. In his presentation, the representative from Syria (Al Sammary, 2000) noted that although during the times of religious pilgrimages millions of people travel in his country, using all forms of transportation (foot, animal, train, bus, automobile), the number of accidents or disruptions of the traffic flow is minimal, because the police planning for such events and the people partaking in these events know what is expected of them. On the other hand, as individual mechanized forms of transportation became more common those using them had to be educated regarding rules and regulations. Syria has decreased the number of accidents by increasing the number of police stations and patrols, improving the traffic control mechanisms, and conducting a thorough public education program on traffic safety.

Another important planning area is preparation and readiness for traffic management in crisis situations, such as natural disasters (floods, hurricanes, earthquakes) or human conflicts (riots, civil disturbances, mass refugee migrations). The speaker from Yugoslavia noted a need for global strategies to address these issues (Simonnovic and Mijovic, 2000: 18).

Sweden’s “Vision-Zero,” the foundation of its National Traffic Safety Program, seeks to substantially reduce the number of persons killed in road accidents each year, follows the principle that “just as we cannot accept people being killed or seriously injured at work or in any other society, we cannot accept this to happen in road traffic” (Jaldung, 2000: l). Estonia developed a three stage National Road Safety Programme, with the goal of reducing road fatalities to less than 100 in the year 2010. The first stage involved organizational and legislation measures, training and education, traffic enforcement and road safety campaigns, and pilot projects in construction, signal systems, and citizen education, and measures of accident black spots. The second stage introduced a national Traffic and Transportation Commission, establishment of a Road Safety Centre and Traffic Commission in all towns and counties. The third stage involves infrastructure improvement, upgrading of speed control and road sign technology, and development of rescue services (Kasesalu, 2000: 20-25).

In Slovenia, the Road Traffic Section of the Uniformed Police Directorate develops a concrete strategic plan each year, which identified target areas. For the year 2000, these included speeding, alcohol, use of safety belts and helmets, pedestrian safety, monitoring of repeat offenders and visibility of police work. The importance of both the quality of planning and the manner its communication to those involved in implementing it was stressed by Zajc (2000: 9):

Clearness, comprehensiveness and the substantial identification
of the problem constitute the characteristics of the strategic document
which enable all police officers who perform their work and duties in the
field of road traffic safety, to get themselves thorough acquainted with it
in detail. It is important to realize that the success and efficiency of police
work in the field of road traffic safety are, in many ways, dependent on
the method of presentation of the document to police administration and
police units which will enable it to be accepted into direct police practice.

All of the speakers emphasized the point that traffic control and reduction of accidents and fatality occurrences were of great concern to the traffic police. Most of the countries were experiencing a trend toward increases in accidents and fatalities each year, documented by the statistics presented by the speakers. The need for well-designed, objective research on various matters related to traffic, including causes of traffic accidents, the effectiveness of safety education programs, and the effects of legislation on traffic related matters, must be recognized. Based on available research, there was common agreement that one major reason for this trend was the great increase in the number of newly licensed drivers. The major identified causes for accidents and fatalities included inadequate roads and highways, driving under the influence of alcohol, ineffective policing and traffic control, poorly trained drivers, violations of traffic laws, and human error. Human factors, including carelessness, negligence, aggressive and inconsiderate driving, fatigue, or driving while emotionally upset, were suggested as being more important in explaining accidents than such environmental conditions as highway disrepair or traffic congestion. Statistics on causes of traffic accidents and fatalities presented by various speakers showed that the leading causes of such occurrences were speeding, following too close and changing lanes inappropriately, going through red lights, driving while intoxicated, falling asleep while driving and other human errors. There was a call for more research in all areas of traffic management and control, including the effects of changes in laws, improvements in transportation systems, the use of modern technology in traffic management, and such factors as congestion and delay on drivers’ attitudes and behavior.

Drivers’ cultural values and attitudes, in terms of respect for others and conformity to the law, should be investigated. Many of them are not concerned with safety or obeying traffic regulations, and these drivers need extensive education to change their views on the importance of taking safety measures and precautions. The speaker from Macedonia suggested that human factors, including carelessness, negligence, aggressive and inconsiderate driving, fatigue, or driving while emotionally upset may be more important in explaining accidents than such physical conditions as highway disrepair or traffic congestion (Stojanovski and Doncev, 2000:7-11)..

The speaker from Turkey (Isildar, 2000:15) also expressed the belief that, along with such factors as lack of express highways and efficient inspection facilities, drivers’ attitudes in his country were important factors in traffic accidents. They are not concerned with safety and there would have to be prolonged education to change their views on the importance of taking safety measures and precautions. The speaker from Yugoslavia recommended that research data pertaining to serious accidents in which a person is criminally charged be analyzed at both the investigation stage, when traffic police are involved, and at the end of the process, after the person is sentenced and all of the facts pertaining to the case are known (Simonovic and Mijovic, 2000:12). The personalities and roles of the victims in accident situations should also be explored. In Sweden, data on the victims of fatal accidents is collected from hospitals and matched with the traffic police reports taken at the accident scenes (Jaldung, 2000: 7).

The Israel Police Force conducted research to compare the use of marked vs. unmarked cars to determine which method of enforcement is more effective for improving driving, driver behavior and reducing driver involvement in road accidents. It was found that enforcement of all types had a significant impact when reinforced and focused, that marked car enforcement, when reinforced, resulted in significantly lower driving speeds and was highly effective in reducing accidents, that a combination of marked/unmarked car enforcement, when reinforced, lowered driving speeds and reduced the number of accidents and casualties, although on a slightly smaller scale than did marked car enforcement, that a combination of marked and unmarked patrol cars is needed to create a “surprise effect” and to provide law enforcement for certain types of offenses (for example, talking on mobile phones, crossing a solid white line, dangerous overtaking) not possible when marked cars are used. Although unmarked car enforcement alone did not have a strong impact in reducing driving speeds or the trends in accidents, it was felt to be more effective against “more sophisticated” traffic offenders in apprehending them at the time of committing serious traffic offenses (Efrat, 2000: 26-27)

Research is also needed to determine the effectiveness of strategic traffic management planning and to identify the factors that explain changes in the numbers of accidents and fatalities. In addition, research on the involvement of the private sector in cooperative ventures in traffic management and policing should be undertaken.

Summary

There were many common traffic management problems and similarities in the approaches used by police and government agencies in the countries represented at the symposium to deal with transportation and traffic policing issues. Specific themes that emerged included: (1) urbanization and industrialization were having a great impact on the existing infrastructures and on economic development; (2) territorial location was highly important in determining the types of needs, problems, or issues relating to transportation facilities and traffic control; (3) there was a strong relationship between prosperity and the growth of traffic congestion, with more vehicles and licenses drivers on the highways, and a new generation of licenses drivers who have limited driving experience and display little regard for the rights of other drivers; (4) the use of “state of the art” technological equipment by traffic police can have highly positive results; (5) there is a growing emphasis on the need for an integrated, coordinated approach involving both government agencies and the local community in efforts to assist with traffic safety and control; (6) a major cause of traffic accidents and fatalities is drivers’ errors and disregard for traffic regulations. Therefore, life-long educational programs in traffic safety must be emphasized; (7) some of the problems and issues pertaining to traffic can only be addressed through international cooperative agreements; (8) the roles and duties of traffic police officers are constantly changing and expanding, and they must be trained for their changing responsibilities: (9) there is a need for planning and research to determine the causes of existing problems and work on their solutions (Kratcoski, 200l:4-5).

Throughout the symposium, during the presentations and in the discussion session at the symposium’s close, many of the speakers emphasized the point that, for traffic control and management to be effective, many segments of the population must be involved in the planning and implementation of programs. Multi-faceted strategies for traffic control may include legislative change, educational programs, technological innovations, expansion and development of public and private transportation systems, and involvement of both public and private agencies. There is a need for sound research on what impact these strategies may have in reducing accidents and fatalities, improving quality of life, and promoting economic advancement. The question of whether specialized traffic policing units should be retained in their present forms or, if the interests of the public would be better served, integrated into general police operations should also be explored.

A book of selected papers from the symposium will be published, edited by Alexander Weiss, Director of the Northwestern University Center for Public Safety and Dilip K. Das, Founder/President of the International Police Executive Symposium. The Eighth International Police Executive Symposium, on the theme of “Corruption: A Threat to World Order,” will be held on May 27-30, 200l, in Szczytno, Poland, hosted by Insp. Prof. Dr. Hab. Wieslaw Plywaczewski of the Swierczewskiego Police Academy. For information on this or other upcoming IPES Symposia, contact Dr. Dilip K. Das, Department of Sociology/Criminal Justice, Plattsburgh State University of New York, l0l Broad Street, Plattsburgh, NY 1290l, U.S.A. Telephone: 518-564-3045 or 518-475-ll89; fax: 5l8-564-3333 or 518-475-0078, e mail: dilip.das@plattsburgh.edu or dilipkd@aol.com.

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